
Class" r 

' ' ' J " 

Book L 



/ 
GREEK GRAMMAR, 



FOR 



THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 



V. CHRISTIAN FRED, ROST. 



AN APPENDIX 
ON GREEK VERSIFICATION, 



LONDON: 
WHITTAKER, TREACHER, AND ARNOT, 

AVE-MARIA LANE. 

1829, 



^4- 






LONDON : 
PRINTED BY R. GILBERT, 

st. John's square. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

§. 1. Grammar. — Language in general 1 

§. 2. Dialects of the Greek Language • 3 



I. ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

Character 's, Pronunciation, and division of the letters. 

§. 3. Greek characters of writing 9 

§. 4. Pronunciation of the letters ••• 10 

§. 5. Division of the consonants • 12 

§. 6. Division of the vowels. — Diphthongs 14 

CHAPTER II. 
Investigation of points which are to be observed in reading. 
7. Breathings • 17 



8. Prosody • • 18 

9. Nature and signs of the accents 45 

1 0. Position of the accents • 47 

11. Change of the accents 52 

12. Recession of the accent, &c. 54, 

1 3. Marks of reading • • . 57 

1 4. Division of syllables • 58 

A % 



iv CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

Change of the letters. 

PAGE 

§. 15. General rules upon the change of consonants 60 

§. 16. Change of mutes before p. • * 66 

§, 17. — _ — before a • ib. 

§. IS. • of v 67 

§. 19. Transposition and reduplication of consonants • • • • 68 

§. 20. Change of vowels • • • » • • • 70 

§. 21. Contraction >•• •• 73 

§. 22. Crasis — Synezesis — Elision — Aphaeresis, and ap- 
pended v ♦....» ., 76 

CHAPTER IV. 

Developement and illustration of the parts of speech. 

$}. 23. General definition of the different kinds of words* • 81 

§. 24. The noun, and the kinds of words connected therewith 82 

§. 25. Verb • 83 

§. 26. Adverb '• • • • ib. 

§. 27. Particles • • 84 

k. 28. Interjection • • 85 

CHAPTER V. 

The Nouriy according to all its parts. 

A. Substantive. 

Gender ••••••...... 86 

Declension • • • « ••*• 88 

Declension of the article •••••••• 89 

First declension .......... 90 

Second declension • 99 

Contracted second declension • • • 104 

Attic declension ••••••• 106 



§. 


29. 


t' 


30. 


§« 


31. 


§. 


32. 


^. 


33. 


!• 


34. 


§. 


U. 



CONTENTS. v 

PAGE 

V 36. Gender in the third declension • • 107 

§. 37. Accent in the third declension 109 

§. 38. Inflexion of the third declension 113 

§. 39. Synopsis of all the terminations of nominatives of 
the third declension, with the formation of the 

genitives • 115 

§. 40. Paradigms to the third declension ••'••• 123 

^. 41 — 45. Contracted third declension • • • • « . • 130 

§. 46. Anomalous substantives of the third declension* • • • 137 

§. 47. Irregular and defective declension • 139 

B. Adjectives and Participles. 

§. 48. Peculiarities of the adjective <»••• • 145 

§. 49*. Terminations of adjectives • 154 

§. 49 b . Declension of adjectives •••••• 159 

§. 50. Participles 1 65 

§. 51 — 54. Degrees of comparison • • 166 

CHAPTER VI. 

§. 55. and 56. Of numerals 176 

CHAPTER VII. 

Pronouns. 

§. 57- and 58. Division and declension of pronouns •••• 181 

§. 59. Correlatives • • 188 

§. 60. Lengthened forms of pronouns 190 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Verb, according to all its parts. 

§. 61. Idea and properties of the verb 191 

§. 62. Conjugation 194 

§. 63. The constituent parts of verbal forms 195 

§. 64. Verbal terminations, and their annexation to the root 196 

§. 65—68. Doctrine of the augment .... , 198 

§. 69. Root and characteristic of verbs. ...»...* 209 



vi CONTENTS. 

FAQS 

§. 70. Discovery of the root 210 

§. 71. Classes of verbs ino> . 213 

§. 72. Affinity of the tenses to each other 220 

§. 73 a . Peculiarities in the formation of single tenses .... 221 

§. 73 b . Paradigms , 226 

§. 74. Use of verbal forms ; • 232 

§. 75. Properties of -the different dialects ', 233 

§; 76.- Position and*change of the accent in verbal forms. . 245 

§. 77. Oontracted conjugation in w 247 

§. 78—80. Conjugation in /«. . 265 

§.81. Verbal adjectives. „ 284 

§. 82. Cause of anomaly in verbs 285 

§. 83. Defective verbs 289 

§. 84. Catalogue of irregular and defective verbs , « . 290 

CHAPTER IX. 

§. 85. Lesser parts of speech. . 330 

§. 86. Formation of adverbs 331 

§. 87. Degrees of comparison of adverbs 335 

§. 88. Prepositions, conjunctions, interjections 336 

APPENDIX. 

§. 89—95. On the formation of Greek words. ,«.•••••• 338 



II. SYNTAX. 

§. 96. Introduction 347 

CHAPTER I. 

Nouns by themselves, and in combination with other nominal 
forms. 

§. 97. Preliminary remark .-. • . 348 

§. 98. Use of the article . , . 349 

f.' 99. Peculiarities in the use of pronouns ............ 355 

10 



CONTENTS. vii 

CHAPTER II. 

Noun in combination with the verb, and with other words, 
upon which it appears as dependent. 

PAGE 

§. 100. Combination of the subject with the predicate and 

copula « • • 364 

§. 101. Apposition 369 

§. 102. Object . . . . 370 

§. 103. Illustration of the relations designated by the cases 371 

§. 104. Use of the accusative S73 

§. 105. and 106. Use of the dative -.. 384 

§. 107—110. Use of the genitive 392 

§. 110 b . Observations on the use of the oblique cases. ... 414? 

CHAPTER III. 

The Verb, according to all its parts. 

§. 111. Kinds of verbs 416 

§. 112. Passive ib. 

§. 113.andll4. Middle 419 

§. 115. General observations upon certain verbs 425 

§. 116. and 117. Signification and use of the tenses.,., .. 428 

§. 118. Idea of the different modes 439 

§. 119. Use of the indicative, conjunctive, and optative in 

simple propositions 440 

§. 120 — 123. Use of the indicative, conjunctive, and op- 
tative in dependent propositions 443 

§. 124. Imperative 467 

§. 125. Simple use of the infinitive 469 

§. 126. Accusative with the infinitive 476 

§. 127. Attraction in the infinitive* • • • 479 

CHAPTER IV. 

Use of the Participle and of the Cases absolute. 

§• 128. Participle in general • • 483 

§. 129. Participle in dependent propositions* • • • • • ib. 



viii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

§ s ISO. Participle in intermediate propositions* • ........ 489 

§. 131. Cases absolute • • 493 

CHAPTER V. 

On the use of Particles. 

§. 13£. Idea and division of the particles •• - 498 

§. 138. ye, Tcp, h) * 499 

§. 134. jccu'j re, fxivi Bi •» 501 

§. 1 85. Negatives **<>* * 506 

APPENDIX. 

On Greek versification *... ... 513 

Index— Greek and English • • • •• * 444 



Page 









ERRATA, 




2, 


line 


26, 


for diaXjf/crof 


read didXeicroi 


32, 


— 


10, 


— Xapog 


— Xapdf 


42, 


— 


3, 


— . x°pv vr l 


— Kopvvr] 


44, 


— 


18, 


— Trvyr) 


— . -Kvyi] 


ib. 


— 


19, 


• — vyrj 


■ — v\t] 


77, 


— 


7, 


— ovfiog 


• — ovfxog 


126, 


— 


8, 


— 7]S 


— n? 


202, 


— 25 ; 


, 26, 


— the augment 


— no augment 


23G, 


— 


21, 


— of <T, 


— of ff in the fut. and aor 


345, 


— 


21, 


— iroki-fayog 


— TToXv-Qayog 



PREFACE 



There is no branch of knowledge whatever in 
which a greater progress has been made during 
the last and present centuries, than that of 
Grammar. Philosophical principles have been 
applied to it, and it has assumed a character and 
consistency to which it was before a stranger. 

A principal cause of the superiority of this 
period in grammatical disquisition, is the cir- 
cumstance of the systems of various languages, 
kindred or unconnected, having been laid before 
the view of the philologist. The Greeks despised 
all languages but their own, and never dreamed 
that their idolized dialect might be illustrated in 
its structure and forms by any of the despised 
barbaric tongues. Hence the philological efforts 
of even the greatest of the Greeks, of even Plato 
himself, are such as to be only deserving of the 
derision of the modern scholar. 

But, since the Grammars of the Teutonic 
languages have been reduced to order; since 
Europe has become intimate with the structure 
of the Shemitic tongues, so unlike to any hitherto 
known • and since, finally, the system of the rich 
and philosophical Sanscrit has been revealed, 



VI PREFACE. , 

and the Persian, the Sclavonian, and even the 
Chinese, have become the property of European 
scholars ; the defective state of the Grammars of 
the classical languages became strikingly ap- 
parent. Accordingly many eminent men of this 
country, of Holland, and of Germany, have at- 
tempted, and with considerable success, to sup- 
ply the deficiency, 

It was to the Greek language that attention 
was particularly directed. Its superior difficulty, 
and, it may be added, its superior value, its rich- 
ness, complexity, and copiousness, and the far 
greater quantity of literary treasures contained 
in it, have mainly contributed to its thus obtain- 
ing the preference. 

The few treatises on Greek Grammar that have 
come down to us from ancient times are meagre 
and trifling. Those of the Greeks about the time 
of the restoration of letters in the West are little 
better. It was not till the 17th century that any 
material improvements were introduced into the 
Grammar of this language ; but it was in the last 
century that considerable advances were made 
in this department of literature by the scholars 
of Holland,-— Hemsterhuys, Ruhnken, and their 
pupils and successors, 

In Germany this subject has, like every other 
branch of knowledge, been taken up warmly and 
followed out, and advanced : and confessedly the 
best Grammars of the Greek language are those 



PREFACE. Vll 

written by the scholars of that country. The ex- 
cellent Grammar of Mathia? is in the hands of al- 
most every classical scholar of this country, and it 
is hoped that the new and considerably improved 
edition of Buttman's Grammar, in 3 vols. 8vo., 
will not long remain untranslated. The history 
of the translation that we possess of the former 
edition of that work needs not to be told. It is 
one among many instances of the imprudent short- 
sightedness of publishers. 

The present Grammar, written by Mr. Rost, 
the author of a very excellent Greek and German 
Dictionary, — -a Dictionary, by the way, which is 
singular in being the only one, of Greek and mo- 
dern language, that contains a second part, e. g. 
German and Greek,— an^ 1 designed for the use 
of schools, of course higher forms. Its 

object is, to give in a ^erate compass all that 
is essential ; to present, unencumbered with a 
long array of examples, every variation of form, 
every necessary and important rule of construe 
tion. 

The arrangement of this Grammar is somewhat 
new. Dividing the whole into two parts, Ety- 
mology and Syntax, Mr. Rost commences the 
former with Prosody, in which he treats at some 
length of the accent and quantity of words and 
syllables. On the system of accentuation he is 
full and precise, whereas, this is the most scanty 
and unsatisfactory portion of the Grammar of 

2 



Vlll PREFACE. 

Mathiae — and by this has certainly added value 
to his work, for it is earnestly to be hoped 
that the time will, before long, arrive when 
Greek will be accented in this country according 
to its own, and not the Latin, system. It might* 
indeed, be doubted whether it be judicious — for 
of the philosophical correctness of it there can be 
no doubt — to place thus in limine so much of 
what may not be deemed absolutely necessary at 
the commencement of Greek studies ; but it is 
the general practice, and the truth is, that in 
almost every work but mathematical ones, much 
must be passed over at first. Certainly, however 
the subject of quantity might be deferred, that of 
accent, if it is to be attended to at all, should find 
its place at the beginning of a Grammar. 

In the remainder of the Etymology, and in the 
Syntax, Mr. Rost is full and satisfactory, and the 
student will seldom feel the necessity of having 
recourse elsewhere for even the nicest peculiari- 
ties of the Greek language. Its moderate size, 
too, and comparatively low price, cannot but 
make it extremely welcome to those, whose 
limited means might act as a check on their 
inclination to become possessors of the valuable 
work of Mathiae. 



INTRODUCTION. 



§ 1. 

GRAMMAR.— LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 

1. Grammar is the doctrine of the formation 
and of the use of words. It is resolved by its 
subject into two parts, namely, (a) Etymology, 
which explains the formation of words, and (b) 
Syntax, which lays down rules on their use. 

2. The object, about which grammar is em- 
ployed, is language, i. e. the expression of our ideas 
by articulate sounds. 

Note. We use the word language in a two-fold relation : 
1 , to denote the faculty of representing internal ideas by sounds 
(in the subjective sense) ; 2, to denote the whole store of ex- 
pressions or words by which internal ideas are represented (in 
the objective sense). In grammar, the word is to be understood 
in the second acceptation. 

3. Language is a production of the human 
mind, ^.nd is used as the only certain means of 
rendering our ideas intelligible to others. It is 
natural therefore for men, who live in society to- 
gether, and communicate their ideas with each 
other, to use the same expressions or, in other 
words, speak the same language. Also, we may 

B 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

easily conceive that, in the diversity of human 
talents, the same expression for the same idea 
would not be adopted in every part of the globe, 
but that different languages would necessarily 
originate. 

4. The first beginning of language, as with 
every human invention, must have been simple 
and defective, and capable of continual cultivation 
and improvement. This beginning formed the 
basis for all subsequent amplification, and is there- 
fore called the primitive language. 

5. The longer a language exists, the farther 
its cultivation advances, and the more it recedes 
from the primitive language. Hence, in every 
cultivated language, we are to distinguish several 
periods or ages, in which it gradually rises to still 
higher perfection and, like all phenomena of 
the human world, again declines. That period, 
wherein a language existed in its purest and most 
perfect state, is usually termed its golden age. 

6. Not only a longer duration in time, but a 
wider diffusion in space also, occasions changes in 
a language, so that new expressions are added, 
and the existing ones differently formed and pro- 
nounced. Deviations of this kind are called the 
different dialects (SiaXrj/croi), and are found in every 
living language in considerable number and in 
various gradations. 

7. Of the existing dialects, one usually attains 
a pre-eminence above the others, and by being 
spoken among all the informed classes of the peo- 
ple, and alone used in written composition, re- 



DIALECTS. 



ceives a particular cultivation. This is called the 
proper or written language, in opposition to the 
rest, which retain the name of dialects. 



§2. 
DIALECTS OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 

1. Among the Hellenes, or Greeks, an innate deli- 
cacy of feeling imparted a rich harmony even to the 
infancy of their language and to the speech of the 
common people, and the liveliness of their genius 
early produced lasting works of literature, which, 
composed in various dialects, have preserved the 
peculiarities of these dialects for the knowledge of 
posterity. Hence, no general written language 
sprung up in Greece, but individual dialects were 
cultivated and improved for the purposes of com- 
position. 

2. Of the primitive language of the Greeks, the 
most traces are left to us in their Epic poems, the 
oldest monuments of the language of this people. 
The peculiar mode of speech observed in these, is 
called the Epic dialect. Its basis formed the old 
national language of the Greeks, which the poet, 
however, for his own purpose, variously modi- 
fied and enriched. Its principal character is a 
rhythmical harmony and a powerful fulness of 
tone. 

Note 1. The Epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in 
a perfect form in the poems of Homer (T\mc, 'O&Wem, [Ba- 
li 2 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

rpa^ofjLvo/jiaxiu]), and of Hesiod (Qeoyovla, "Epya ical 'H/xe'pat, 
[Atrrrlc 'HpcucXeovg). The rest formed themselves according to 
the model of these two, particularly of Homer. The most emi- 
nent of them are : Theognis, and the other gnomic poets, Apol- 
lonius Rhodius ('ApyovavriKa.), the author of the poem extant 
under the name of Orpheus (^ApyovavTiicd), Quintus Smyrnaeus 
('IXlov "AXioaig, Noorrot)} and Nonnus (Aio^vcia/ca), who gave a 
new flight to Epic poetry, and found many imitators, as Musaeus 
(tcl Katy 'Hpw /cat Aia vfipov), Coluthus or Colluthus ('EXeV^e 
'Apirayri), and many others. 

Note 2. Since the Epic language was derived from the stores 
of the general national language, and variously enriched by the 
poet himself ; since, moreover, the dialect found in the oldest 
Epic remained in after-times appropriated *to this species of 
poetry, and thus was continually advanced in cultivation and 
increased by new admixtures ; it is natural, therefore, that it 
should not appear as a complete and finished whole, but should 
betray in its single parts many deviations and irregularities. 

Note 3. If the basis of the Epic dialect is the old primitive 
language of the Greeks, and the primitive contains all the germs 
of the subsequent development of a language, we may easily con- 
ceive how this dialect should evince divers traces of all the 
peculiarities, which afterwards were individually cultivated and 
retained in the single dialects. Thus, in Epic occur Aeolisms, 
Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as fundamental peculiarities of 
he Greek language. But it is erroneous to regard the Epic 
tanguage, on that account, as a mixture of all the dialects ; as, 
on the other hand, it is also wrong to confound it with the Ionic, 
(see below, 5), from the circumstance of its having many funda- 
mental peculiarities in common with that dialect. The same 
obtains of Aeolisms, Dorisms, lonisms, and Atticisms, in all 
cases where reference is made to them by grammarians and com- 
mentators. 

3. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace 
into the country afterwards called Hellas, were 
divided into several tribes, whereof two, the 
Dorians (Awpewc, to Awpi/cov) and the lonians 
('Iaovfc, >! \u)vzq, to 'lam/cov) chiefly extended them- 
selves. Each of these tribes cultivated an inde- 
pendent and peculiar character in language, as 
well as in manners and mode of life, and after 



DIALECTS. O 

their names we denominate the two principal dia- 
lects, the Doric (fi Atopic, Ao>pt/o7 cmAa/croe) and the 

IoniC (J) lac, 'ItJViKrj SiaAe/croc). 

4. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hel- 
lenic tribes, preserved their dialect, which was 
widely diffused as the common language in Hellas 
Proper and the colonies, pure from foreign inter- 
mixture, but did little for the particular advance- 
ment of their language. Hence the Doric dialect 
exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, 
and a flatness of tone, from the frequent use of 
the dull sound A (7rXar£ta<7juoe). Besides this dia- 
lect, the Aeolic also (rj 'AioA/c, AloXucri SiaAt/crot;) was 
formed according to the model of antiquity, and 
had many peculiarities in common with the Doric, 
whence it was considered as a refined collateral 
form of the same, cultivated particularly for the 
use of the poets. 

Note 4. The Doric and Aeolic dialects became and continued 
to be the language of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character 
of the Doric is most purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; 
while those of Alcaeus, Sappho, and Corinna, exhibit rather the 
Aeolic mode. The Doric is purer in the idyls of Theocritus. 
In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an approach to the 
sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments of 
the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric 
prose. 

Note 5. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth 
of the people, as individual varieties of the generally diffused 
Doric dialect. But their peculiar character is, for the most part, 
known only from insulated expressions and short sentences, 
which are adduced in historians and comic poets. The most 
celebrated and extensive of them are the Laconic, Boeotic, and 
Thessalic dialects, and next to these the Sicilic. 

5. The lonians, driven from their settlements 
by the Dorians, betook themselves principally to 



INTRODUCTION. 

Attica, and, when that barren country was un- 
able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to 
the opposite coast of Asia. Under the mild cli- 
mate of Lesser Asia, the form of their language 
became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the 
Epic. Thus was developed the Ionic dialect, whose 
principal character is a softness of expression, ac- 
quired from the frequency of vowels and the so- 
lution of harsh syllables by interposed sounds. 
Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in this dialect. 

Note 6. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic 
with the Epic dialect have occasioned the latter also to be deno- 
minated Ionic : although with this distinction, that the appellation 
of Old Ionic is given to the Epic ; but to the Ionic that of New 

Ionic, 

6. The language of the lonians, who remained 
behind in Attica, proceeded differently in its 
formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the 
Attic, which observed an intermediate course be- 
tween the Doric harshness and Ionic softness, 
adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of words, 
and the greatest pliancy in their construction. 
The political consequence and the high pitch of 
intellectual culture to which Athens arrived gave 
a wide circulation to this dialect ; and the consi- 
derable number of eminent writings which are 
composed in it, and have been preserved, deter- 
mine it for the ground-work in the study of Greek 
literature. 

Note 7. The most celebrated works written in the flourish- 
ing period of the Attic language and culture are, the historical 
books of Thucydides, the historical and philosophical writings 
of Xenophon, the philosophical books of Plato, and the orations 



DIALECTS. 7 

of Demosthenes, Lysias, Isocrates, Aeschines, &c. ; besides the 
tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and the 
comedies of Aristophanes. 

7. That peculiarity, which the single Grecian 
states had preserved in language and manners, 
disappeared with the general decline of their free- 
dom. Athens, however, for a long time continued 
the chief seat of liberal information ; and the Attic 
dialect, as the purest and most widely diffused, 
became the court language of the now ruling Ma- 
cedonians, and by degrees the general language 
of writing and of the people. Hence it neces- 
sarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity 
of this dialect was sacrificed, and many innovations 
introduced in expression and inflexion. This lan- 
guage, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is 
comprehended under the name of the general or 
Hellenic dialect (rj koivyi or 'EXXqvi/ci) SiaXe/croe). The 
authors of this period, however, endeavoured to 
exhibit the Attic dialect pure and uncorrupted, 
according to the early models, although many 
peculiarities of more modern times are inter- 
spersed in their writings ; hence their style has 
received the appellation of the later Attic. 

Note 8. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, 
Pausanias, Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Lucian, Aelian, Arrian, &c. 

8. In Macedonia the Greek language was min- 
gled with much foreign alloy ; and, thus corrupted, 
it spread itself, with the extension of the Macedo- 
nian empire, over other barbaric nations.— Ma- 
cedonic dialect. Alexandria, in Egypt, was the 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

colony of liberal information under the Mace- 
donian rulers ; there a circle of learned men 
assembled together, and made it their chief study 
to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dialect 
by rejecting all modern accessions, although their 
style also fell short of the ancient models. But 
the Greek language underwent a peculiar refor- 
mation by the translators of the Old and the 
authors of the New Testament, who designated, 
by Greek expressions, things of oriental concep- 
tion and application. As this style occurs only 
in the Scriptures and some Christian writers, it 
may be called the ecclesiastical dialect. 

9. By degrees the old Greek language, under 
the influence of various causes, so far degenerated 
in the mouth of the people, and was deformed by 
so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise 
to the new Greek, which has almost entirely ex- 
changed the primitive character of the old for that 
of more modern tongues, and still continues in an- 
cient Greece as the language of the country. The 
writers of later times, however, constantly endea- 
voured in their works to preserve the pure Greek 
language, for which the Attics of the flourishing 
period served them as models. 



FIRST PART. 



ETYMOLOGY 



CHAPTER I. 



Characters, Pronunciation, and Division of the 
Letters, 





*■+■**■*•*■+ *-r^*^*+-*-* *■ 






%z. 






GREEK CHARACTERS 


OF WRITING 


r 


A, a, 


"AAtf>a, 


Alpha, 


a. 


b, p, e, 


Brira, 


Beta, 


b. 


r, y , r, 


YafXfia, 


Gamma, 


g- 


A, 8, 


AtXra, 


Delta, 


d. 


E, e, 


*E \fl\6v, 


E psilon, 


e. 


1,1, 


ZrjTa, 


Zeta, 


z. 


H, n, 


*Hra, 


Eta, 


e, ee 


9, 9, 0, 


Brira, 


Theta, 


th. 


I,«, 


Iwra, 


Iota, 


i. 


K, K, 


Ka7T7ra, 


Kappa, 


k, c. 


A,X, 


Aa|u(3Sa, 


Lambda, 


1. 


M, ^ 


Mv, 


Mu, 


m. 


N, v, 


Nv, 


Nu, 


n. 


B,J, 


St, 


Xi, 


X. 


O, o, 


*0 jUlKpOV, 


Omicron, 


o, 


ft,*, 


n? ? 


Pi, 


P> 



10 





ETYMOLOGY. 




p, p, 


'PlO, 


Rho, 


r. 


2, (t, g, 


Xiypa, 


Sigma, 


s. 


T, r, 1, 


Tav, 


Tau, 


t. 


Y, v, 


Y \pi\ov, 


U psilon, 


u. 


<&, 4>, 


<K 


Phi, 


ph. 


x > X> 


Xt, 


Chi, 


ch. 


% 1, 


*r, 


Psi, 


ps. 


Q, h), 


Q jLiiya. 


mega, 


O, 00 



Note 1. The given two-fold mode of writing some consonants 
is used arbitrarily, except in the case of sigma. a stands only 
at the beginning or in the middle ; g only at the end of a word, 
or in compounds at the end of a syllable, e. g. Svgtvx>ISi 7rpoc^tpw, 
on the contrary tcktg-u}. 

Note 2. To promote expedition in writing, recourse was had 
to the union of such letters as frequently occur next each other 
into one character. Hence arose a variety of abbreviations, which 
were transferred from the Greek manuscripts into the earliest 
editions ; but gradually declined in use, and in the late editions 
have wholly disappeared. 



§4. 
PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS. 

1. The chief difficulty is experienced in deter- 
mining the pronunciation of the vowels, particu- 
larly of diphthongs formed by the union of two 
vowels, because these vary their sound according 
to the difference of periods or dialects. To this 
change the obscure sounds a and o, and the clear 
t and £, are least subject, because the simple and 
determinate tone with which they are pronounced 
admits of no approximation to that of any other. 



PRONUNCIATION. 11- 

The remaining vowels and diphthongs, however, 
were variously pronounced, and principles for 
each mode of pronunciation advanced and de- 
fended. This took place on the revival of the 
sciences in the sixteenth century, particularly 
between Erasmus and Reuchlin, according to 
whom the two modes of pronunciation have 
been designated by the terms Erasmian and 
Reuchlinian. 

Note. The Erasmian pronunciation proceeds upon the prin- 
ciple that every simple vowel ought to be pronounced with a 
peculiar sound ; but every diphthong by a mixed sound, in 
which the two fundamental vowels are heard as distinctly as 
possible. Hence, although it fails in many points to give the 
true pronunciation of the ancient Greeks, it, nevertheless, is 
adapted, by its perspicuity and definiteness, for the purposes of 
instruction, and with much propriety has now been universally 
introduced. According to the pronunciation of Reuchlin, r\ 
sounds as long t, at as ai (in the English word pain J, the sounds 
ei, oi, and vi 9 like i, are pronounced as i (in the English machine J 9 
and v, after a and e, as/. This mode of pronunciation, although 
supported by the modern Greek, offends against perspicuity by 
confounding different letters in the same sound, and is therefore 
less suitable for instruction. 

2. For the correct pronunciation of single con- 
sonants, the following must be observed : 

y before another y, and before k, ^, $, is a gut- 
tural and nasal sound at the same time, and to be 
pronounced like n in the words sing, s'mk, and the 
like ; thus, ayysXoc (angelos), avyKowr) (syncope), 
tyX og (en-chos), XapuyS (larynx). 

I is not to be pronounced as sharp as our (the 
German) z (resembling ts), but like a soft d pass- 
ing gently into the sound s. 

r\ forms the long sound for a as well as for e. 
According to this, therefore, it ought sometimes 



12 ETYMOLOGY. 

to be pronounced like ee, sometimes like at (re- 
sembling long a in cane) ; it seems, however, that, 
in the pronunciation of it by the Greeks, the 
clearer tone was always made to predominate, 
and consequently that it should be pronounced 
throughout like our ee; e. g. S//o? (dikee). 

3, a t with a strong breathing, resembles in 
sound the lisping th of the English in the word 
thick. 

i is invariably a vowel, and must never be pro- 
nounced like our j ; e. g. iafifiog (i-ambos), 'Imvikoq 
(i-onikos). 

k sounds before all vowels like the English k. 
n must never be pronounced with a hissing 
sound, like the Latin ti, when followed by a 
vowel ; but the t sound ought to be heard purely ; 
e. g. AlyvwTiot (Aigyptioi, not Aigypshioi). 

(?X is always to be uttered separately, like the 
English sch in school, not in schism ; e. g. ioyui 
(es-cho). 



§5. 

DIVISION OF THE CONSONANTS. 

1. According to their nature, the letters are 
resolved into two classes : (a) vowels, which afford 
a complete and distinct sound of themselves ; and 
(b) consonants, which afford a complete and dis- 
tinct sound only in combination with a vowel. 



CONSONANTS. 13 

2. Each of these two classes of letters is again 
resolved into several subdivisions. The conso- 
nants are distinguished : 

i. According to the organ chiefly employed in 
their pronunciation, into 

(a) labials (labiales) — /3, ir, <j>, p. 

(b) linguals (linguales)— $, S, r, X, v, p, a. 

(c) palatines (palatinae)— -y, k, ^. 

ii. According to certain peculiarities evinced 
in their pronunciation, into 

(a) semivowels (semivocales), whose sound can 
be pretty distinctly perceived without the acces- 
sion of a vowel. These are X, p, v, p, and a, 
whereof the four first, X, /u, v, and p, have also the 
particular denomination of liquids (liquidae), be- 
cause in pronunciation they easily flow into other 
sounds. 

(b) mutes, (mutae), whereof no distinct sound 
can be produced without an acceding vowel. 
These, again, are resolved into three subdivisions, 
and that in a two-fold respect. They are allied 
together, namely, (a) according to their fundaynen- 
tal sounds, as P sounds 7r, j3, <£- — K sounds k, y, % 
— and T sounds r, S, S; (|3) according to the man- 
ner of pronunciation, being pronounced either 
sharp and without the mixture of a breathing, or 
with a rough breathing, or with a softened breath- 
ing. Hereto refer the appellations 

tenues (i//iXa, unaspirated), ?r, k, t. 
aspiratae (<Wa, aspirated, pronounced with a 
rough breathing), <£, x> $• 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

mediae (^a, middle, pronounced with a soften- 
ed breathing), j3, y, 8. 

in. To these simple consonants are joined the 
double consonants : 

Z, formed from cV or (to\ 

£, — y<7, kg, ya> 

^ „-*.,- |3<X, 7T<T, $<T. 



§ 6. 
DIVISION OF THE VOWELS.™ DIPHTHONGS. 

1 . The vowels, which in Greek are seven, a, e, 
t?, i, o, v, w, are distinguished, according to the 
time elapsing in their pronunciation, into 

(a) short (breves, fipayka) — £ and o (whose pro- 
nunciation occupies the shortest possible time). 

(b) long (longae, /ua/coa) — n and w (which require 
in their pronunciation twice as much time as the 
short). 

(c) doubtful (ancipites, llygova)— a, e, v (which 
can be pronounced both as short and long). 

Note 1 . As grammatical signs to define the measure or quan- 
tity of vowels, a semicircle ("), is used for the short, and a straight 
line ( ~) for the long, each being placed over the character of 
the vowel. Hence arise the following designations, e, o, v> w » 

mow 

a 7, v, 

2. The vowels are combined in a variety of 
ways, two and two together, into one sound, and 
hence are formed the diphthongs. If we wish to 



VOWELS.— DIPHTHONGS. 1 5 

pronounce these correctly, we must accustom our- 
selves, as much as possible, to cause both vowels 
to be heard combined in one sound. They are the 
following : — 

ai to be pronounced ai. 

« . — _ __ ei. 

01 — „_ oi. 

vi . ui (v pronounced long, 

and echoed by t short). 




Note 2. From remarking that the Latins use ae for the Greek 
at and oe for oi, the inference has been drawn that these sounds 
must correspond with the German a and o. On the contrary, 
however, it is to be observed, that the Latins did not pronounce 
ae and oe with a sound as independent as that of our (the Ger- 
man) a and o, but caused the component parts of which these are 
formed to be heard more distinctly, so that the fundamental 
sounds a and o were heard with the echo of e, as, in the Greek 
diphthongs a and o, with the echo of i ; by which, indeed, the 
sounds of the two approximated very nearly to each other. 

Note 3. ov, as an indication of the long u, is a diphthong in 
respect to composition only, not to sound. For in Greek the 
short u had no appropriate character, and its sound was repre- 
sented in many cases by o, in others by v. When the long sound 
of this kind was required to be expressed, those two characters 
were united, and hence arose the form ov. 

Note 4. wv is a diphthong occurring only in the Ionic dialect. 
In its accurate pronunciation, the long O sound must precede 
and be echoed by a short u. 

3. From those proper we yet distinguish in the 
Greek language three improper diphthongs, viz. 
the vowels a, rj, to, with a subscript t, thus — a, y, 

2 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

w. Originally, these sounds were closely allied 
to m, a, ot, and only so distinguished, that, in 
the latter, a, t, and o, were sounded of the same 
length with the i ; while, in the former, the long 
sound of a, e, and 6, preceded, and the i merely 
followed as a short echo. This accurate pro- 
nunciation, however, appears to have been lost 
at an early period even among the Greeks, them- 
selves, and therefore at present we pronounce 
«, y t to, in the same way as a, r?, a>; and the 
underwritten iota serves as a mere grammatical 
sign for determining the derivation and for dis- 
tinguishing the forms. 

Note 5. Originally the t, even in these improper diphthongs, 
was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of 
capitals this practice still obtains : thus we write #£r?e, buf'At^c 
(lower world) ; <p<>Vi but '£tc<^ (song), &c. 



BREATHINGS. 17 



CHAPTER II. 



Investigation of Points, which are to be observed 
in Reading. 



§7. 
BREATHINGS. 



1. Every vowel or diphthong, which is pro- 
nounced without a letter preceding it, is necessa- 
rily connected with a breathing, (spiritus, irvcu/ua). 
This is either smooth or rough, and consequently 
every word beginning with a vowel or diphthong 
must be pronounced with one of these two 
breathings. 

2. The signs made use of for these breathings 
are, for the rough ( € ) (irvzvpa <W(/, spiritus asper) ; 
and for the smooth (' ) (irvivfia \pi\6v, spiritus lenis). 
The smooth breathing, as naturally joined with 
every vowel uttered freely, has in other languages 
no peculiar sign ; but the rough corresponds to our 
English h, e. g. ad (a-ei), & (ex), e£ (hex), iowq 
(e-ros), tipwt,' (he-ros). 

3. Y at the beginning of words in the Attic 
dialect, is always to be pronounced with the 
rough breathing ; thus, vnep (hu-per), vSup (hu- 
dor), &c. 

4. In diphthongs the sign is not placed over 

c 



W PROSODY. 

the first, but over the second of the vowels, of 
which the diphthong is composed ; because the 
breathing does not belong to either of the two 
blended vowels singly, but to the whole mingled 

SOimd ,* thus, ot, al, olvog, ev0vg 9 avrog, &C. 

5. P, at the beginning of words, is also marked 
with the spiritus asper — p, and a double />, in the 
middle, with the spir, lenis and spir. asper — pp ; 
because the sound of this consonant cannot be 
produced without an audible breathing. 

Note. Originally, the rough breathing had alone a sign, 
namely, H, but the smooth remained unmarked. Afterwards, 
that sign was divided into two halves, and the first half I used 
to denote the spir, asper ; the second -i the spir, lenis. By a 
subsequent abbreviation of these two were formed |_ an ^ J 
which finally changed into ( ' ) and ( * ), the signs now in use. 



P R O S O D Y 



1. Prosody is the doctrine of the quantity 
of syllables. 

2. Every syllable requires, according to its pe- 
culiar nature, a longer or shorter time for its pro- 
nunciation ; that is, it is either long (jiaizpa, longa), 
or short (j3pa^«a, brevis). 

Note. As a measure for the short syllable, it is usual to take 
the least possible portion of time, in which a sound can be ut- 
tered ; the double of this time gives the measure of the long. 



MEASURE. OF SYLLABLES. 19 

3 Intermediate between the long and short 
stand those syllables which, from their nature, 
are neither decidedly long nor short. Such a syl- 
lable of undetermined measure is called arbitrary, 
or doubtful, (koiv/j, anceps). 

4. The signs used in grammar for the measure 
of syllables are, a straight line (~) over the vowel 
for the long; a semicircle ( w ) for the short; and 
the union of these two (") for the undetermined 
measure. 

5. If the measure of a syllable depends partly 
and principally upon the nature of the vowels, 
the syllable is long or short by nature ; but if 
upon the combination of the vowels with conso- 
nants, it is long or short by position. 

6. The natural measure of a syllable can be de- 
termined from a knowledge of the measure of the 
vowels (see § 6). Hence arise the following rules : 

(a) A syllable, in which one of the long 
vowels y) or w stands, is long ; e. g. yvwpn rjpwc. 

(b) Every syllable is long, which contains a 
diphthong, whether proper or improper (see § 6.) ; 

€. g. euSuc, koivoq, aioyjpoQy a$u), Aoxuv. 

(c) Every combination of two vowels into one 
sound renders the syllable naturally long ; e. g. 

a.K(s)v for azKWV, Ipog for Itpog, OTayvq for arayvtQ OX 
ara-^vag. 

(d) A syllable containing one of the short 
vowels £ or o, is short, if the short vowel is fol- 
lowed by another* vowel, or by a simple conso- 
nant ; e. g. pXoc> Seoc. 

c2 



20 PROSODY. 

Nole. Exceptions from these fundamental rules, allowed to 
the poets for the formation of verse, belong to the metrical art, 
and are therefore omitted here. 

7. But a syllable with a short vowel becomes 
long by position ; that is, when the short vowel is. 
followed by a double consonant, or by two or 
three consonants ; e. g. roajri^a, t£w, tyov, op-yri, 

Exception. A syllable, whose vowel is short, is 
not made long by a mute with a liquid ; that is, 
when the short vowel is followed by two conso- 
nants, of which the first is a mute (see §5. 2. b), 

« W 4> 

and the second a liquid ; e.g. ntTrXog, tUvov, wqtjlioq, 

QK^irf, /3orpi>£. 

Note. When one of the three doubtful vowels, a, t, v t pre- 
cedes a mute with a liquid, it must first be decided whether this 
is of itself long or short ; since it is evident that a vowel of itself 
long cannot become short before a mute with a liquid. Hence, 
e. g. £Trd$\ov (from a$\ov instead of ae$\or), fxr/vvrpov, and the 
like, remain long. 

8. But the given exception is again subject to 
several limitations, and a mute with a liquid forms 
a true position. 

(a) when the mute and liquid meet together 
in compounds ; e.g. kXaVw (from e/c and XaVw). 

(b) when a middle letter, j3, y, or $, is followed 
by one of the three liquids X, p, v. Thus, the short 
vowel is lengthened, e. v g. in XtXi-y/icu, /3i'gXoc, 



euo 



Note. The old Epic writers generally use those syllables, in 
which a short vowel is followed by a mute with a liquid, as 
long. They shorten them only in words that cannot otherwise 
be adapted to the measure of the verse, particularly where mtites, 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 21 

with the exception of y, are succeeded by p, as also before k\ 9 
■ttX, rX, and %X. With the Attics, on the contrary, such syllables 
(excepting the cases adduced above under b) are almost invari- 
ably short. 

9. In determining the right measure of syllables 
in Greek words, the chief difficulty is occasioned 
by the doubtful vowels a, i, and v, which of them- 
selves are of undetermined measure. It must be 
observed generally respecting them, that in a de- 
finite word the measure of the doubtful letter is 
also definite, consequently either only long or 
only short ; moreover, that the usual measure of 
a syllable is short, and must be assumed as such 
in all cases where it is not known to be long from 
other laws. 

10. In order to give a complete and clear synop- 
sis of the several cases, in which the doubtful 
vowels are used long, regard must first be paid to 
that syllable of a word in which the doubtful 
vowel occurs. We commence herein with the 
final syllable, and pass on from it to the penulti- 
mate and antepenultimate. Next, to investigate 
the particulars more accurately, we distinguish 
between the different classes of words, and speak 
first of the length of doubtful vowels in declen- 
sion ; then in conjugation and indeclinables. Fi- 
nally, when several cases follow one common 
analogy, they are comprehended under a general 
rule ; on the other hand, those words, in which 
the doubtful vowel is long contrary to the analogy 
obtaining in similar ones, are singly and com- 
pletely enumerated. 

1 1 . But as the position. of the accent determines 



22 PROSODY. 

in many instances the measure of doubtful vowels, 
we must premise thereon the following general 
rules : 

(a) every doubtful vowel, which is marked with 
a circumflex, is by nature long ; e. g. Xaag, Igoq, 

(b) if an acute accent stands on the penultimate 
of polysyllabic words, which have a doubtful 
vowel in the final syllable, the doubtful vowel is 

long ; e. g. /BacrtAaa, cro^ta. 

(c) if a circumflex stands on the penultimate, 
or an acute on the antepenultimate, the doubtful 
vowel in the final syllable is short ; e. g. x^ u «> 

(d) in like manner, the doubtful vowel in the 
penultimate is short, if it have an acute, and the 
final syllable be also short ; e. g\ 7roAAa/ac, t'ktiq, 

kXvgiq* 

12. All the rest are classed together in the fol- 
lowing synopsis, according to the single letters 
a, i, v. Beginning with a, the cases are first enu- 
merated, in which this vowel is used long in the 
different syllables of words. 



FIRST SECTION. 
Long a in Greek Words. 



A. Long a in the final syllable. 
The terminations, whose quantity is here to be 
determined, are «, «v, ap, and ac 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 23 

I. The termination a. 

1. The termination a in the nominative of the 
first declension, is long 

(a) invariably in words accented upon the last 
syllable, and generally in those which have an 
acute upon the penultimate ; e. g. \xva, irapua, 
X^pa. Those, on the contrary, which have an 
acute on the antepenultimate, or a circumflex on 
the penultimate, are without exception short ; as, 

fxepijuva, &C. 

(b) a is also long in the following terminations 
of words of the first declension : (a) without ex- 
ception in aa, ea, oa, va, and am ; €. g. eXaa, 7rreXea, 

Sea, 7roa, oW, Kapva, aXwa : (/3) with the exceptions 
noticed below, it is long also in aia, ua, m, oia, and 

pa', 6.g. yaXyvaia, Xda, Trai^ua, (piXici^ ayia, ^poia, 
aXXoia, avpa, yjopa, yjjtiEpa. 

Exceptions : Of words in aia, all dissyllables, 
and some polysyllabic proper names, are short in 
the final syllable ; e. g. yala, LtXaraia. Of those in 
ua we must observe, in the first place, that sub- 
stantives formed from verbs in evoj, when they are 
appellatives of persons, shorten the final vowel ; 
but that the same, when they denote an action or 
thing, are long ; e. g. fiaaiXua (a queen), but 
fiamXua (a kingdom). Also, most substantives in 
ua, formed from adjectives in ik, have the final a 
short ; e. g. a/cmjSaa, aX*$aa, &c. : this rule, how- 
ever, applies only to the Attic and general lan- 
guage, as Homer uses such substantives long, and 
consequently, instead of aXffiem, forms aXifehi. 



24 PROSODY. 

Also feminlnes in a« of adjectives in uc, have al- 
ways the short vowel ; e. g. jXvkvq, yXvKtid, %Xvq, 
%\ua, rifxiavq, rifiiaeia. Likewise, all polysyllables 
accented on the antepenultimate, e. g. Trava/caa, 
TTtXua, Kopuvtia, &c. Of words in ia, feminine ap- 
pellatives in rpia shorten the final a, as iroi^rpid (a 
poetess), ooyjiarpia (a female dancer) ; and besides 
these, only the adjectives out, pid, ttotvm, and the 
two substantives Actum and UaXvfivid. Of those in 
ota, compounds which are derived from substan- 
tives in ovq have the a short ; e. g. wvoid (from 
voug), TraXippoia. (from povq), &c. With the Epic 
writers these also are generally lengthened, and 
take i) instead of a, excepting, however, those in 
/3oia (from |3ovc), which always preserve the short 
«, as Eu£om, and the like. Of words in via, oxy- 
tones only are long, as prirpvid ; all others take the 
circumflex on the penultimate, or the acute on 
the antepenultimate, and are consequently short. 
Of words in oa, those which are accented with 
the acute on the iinai or penultimate syllable are 
long, all others short. Also dissyllabic proper 
names, having pp in the middle, and the accent on 
the penultimate, are short ; e. g. Uvppd. 

(c) the final a is long, of proper names in Set and 
St* , and of some in Xa and pa ; e. g. A/joa, <I>iAopj\a, 

Aiarijua. 

(d) lastly, as single examples of the long a are 
to be noticed the two words aXaXd and <jKav§dXd. 

(e) the Doric termination a, instead of >/, is al- 
ways long; e.g. $apd instead of fo'jpti. 

2. In the remaining cases of the first declension 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 25 

which end with a, the a is long in the Doric genitive 
termination, (see § 32, Note 4) ; also in the dative 
sing, in a, and in the nom. and accus. dual. The 
quantity of the vocative is regulated by that of 
the nominative ; but in words whose nom. ends 
with aq or j?c, a in the vocative is short, (see § 32, 
obs. 1). 

3. As a termination of the second declension, a 
is always short, except in the plural of contracted 
neuters ; e. g. oara instead of harka, \pvaa instead 

of ^pvaia. 

4. a is also short in the termination of the third 
declension, with the following exceptions : (a) the 
word Kapa (a head) — (b) the accus. sing, in a* of 
words in wq ; e. g. hpia (from lepzvq) : also the 
accus. sing, when formed by contraction from ™ } 
which always happens with words in >ic, having a 
vowel preceding their termination ; e. g. vym in- 
stead of vyda (from vyirio) — (c) the neut. plur. of 
words in aq, gen. aoq, and of some in oq with an e 
preceding, as being formed by contraction from 

aa and sa ; e. g. Ktpa instead of Ktpaa (from tcepaq), 

K\ta instead of K\&a (from K\toq). Yet the Epic 
writers use the first of these frequently, and the lat- 
ter usually, as short — (d)the dat. sing, of neuters in 
«t;, gen. aoq ; e, g. ynpa instead of yvpai (from yr'ipaq). 

5. Of adverbs with a long in the final syllable, 
are to be adduced only XaSpa, Kpvtya, and iravra, 
besides all those which, taken from datives of the 
first declension, terminate in a, and consequently, 
by reason of the improper diphthong, are natu- 
rally long ; e.g. hipvaia, tela. In all other adverbs, 



26 PROSODY. 

as well as in numerals and prepositions, the ter- 
mination a is always short. 

6. Also as a verbal termination, a is long only 
when formed by contraction ; e. g. yi\a instead of 
ylAae, ytXo instead of yzXau. In all other cases it 
is invariably short. 

II, Termination av. 

1. In the first declension, the termination av of 
accusatives sing, is long in those words which 
have a long in their nom., consequently in all end- 
ing with a, (which have been given above under 
I. L), and in those in ag ; e. g. yjopav, Xuav, tyiklav, 

also veaviav (from vtaviaq), TlvSayopav, &C. But it 

the nominative ends in a short, as is the case with 
all words of this termination not adduced above, 
then the accus. also has av short; e. g. aXifiuav, 
&e. The Doric termination av of genitives plur. 
(see § 32, obs. c.) is long ; e. g. Nv/ucpav instead of 

l^VjU(j>U)V. 

2. Asa nominative termination of the third de- 
clension, av is long only in masculines ; e. g. iraidv, 
and in the single neut. wav. 

3. Adverbs ending in av have a short, with the 

exception of ayav, Xiav, Tr&pav. 

4. av, as a verbal termination also, is always 
short, except in the infin. of verbs in aw, where a 
is formed by contraction from au and is usually 
written with the i subscript ; e. g. yeXav, or ycXav. 
This termination remains long even when it is 
lengthened in Epic into aav, e. g. uvrmav, or 



avnaav. 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 27 

III. Termination ap. 

The final ap, which occurs only in the third de- 
clension, is short, except in monosyllables, as $ap. 
In <TTeap (tallow) and <j>psap (a well), the lengthen- 
ing of a is peculiar to the Attics; the Epics, on 
the contrary, use it short. 

IV. Termination ag. 

1. As a nominative termination of the first de- 
clension, ac is long, if preceded by a vowel or p ; 
e. g. ragtag, IlvSayopag, and in those which have 
a in the gen. (see § 32, Note 4). In the accus. 
plural of the first declension it is always long. 

2. In the third declension, a is long in (a) words 
in ag, gen. uvrog, e. g. yiyag, Ifxag, and all participles 
of this termination — (b) the two adjectives ^\ag 
and ra\ag — (c) compound adjectives in /code, gen. 
KpaTog ; e. g. yaXicoKpag, and the like. 

Note. Accusatives plural of the third declension have the a al- 
ways short ; e. g. SiopctKag, MaKecovag, &c. Only in eag of subst. 
in evg it is long ; e. g. lepidg (from upevg), i7nria.g (from linvevg). 

3. ac is always short in the final syllabled 
verbal forms, except where it is produced by con- 
traction ; e. g. lyeXag for kyiXaeg. Participles in ag 
have already been stated, in the preceding propo- 
sition, to be long. 

B. Long a of penultimate syllables in declen- 
sion and conjugation. 

1. In the first declension, Doric and poetic ge- 
nitives in ao and «wv have a long ; e. g. 'Arpa'Sao, 



28 PROSOD r . 

Traptidwv, Szdwv, &c. Also fern, participles in dva 

from maSC. in ag ; e. g. yeXaadaa. 

2. Before the casal termination of the third de- 
clension, a is long 

(a) in the oblique cases of subst. in av, gen. 

avog ; 6, g. 7raiav 9 iraiavoq, Aicapvav, avog, &C 

(b) in the oblique cases of many words in a§, 
namely, (a) monosyllabic masc, and the fern. pa% ; 

€, g. Bpa£, OpaKog, (3\a!~, fiXaKog, pa^, payog — (|3) 

dissyllabic masc. in «£, if the preceding syllable 
is by nature long, and all polysyllables with this 

ending ; e. g, So>oa£, aKog, oia^, aKog, Gvpfyafi, aKog, 

opOlaZ, aKog, ikpa'i, aKog — (y) all masc. words of re- 
proach and diminutives which take a vowel before 
a'i, ; e. g. vka'i, aKog (a youth), (pXva%, aKog (a prat- 
tler)—^) the following single words : iraaaai, 
GTOfxfya't, fyhaZ,, $6pra%, all having aKog in the ge- 
nitive. 

Note 1. Of words in a£, all feminines 'and the dissyllabic 
masc. whose penultimate is not long by nature, keep a short before 
the casal termination ; e. g. >/ ora£, errdyog, // av\aE, uvXcikoc 
o (j)v\at>, aKoc. 

Note 2. Yet these rules do not obtain free from all exception, 
as some dissyllabic masc. in a£, whose penultimate is not long by 
nature but by position, also retain the long vowel in the oblique 
cases. Thus, kovcu^ K6pBa£, iropira'H,, all form in the gen. vlkoq. 
On the contrary, a is sometimes short in others, which have the 
penultimate by nature long ; e. g. 6 XelfiaE,, a/coc. 

(c) Of words in ag, the oblique cases retain the 
long vowel in o Kpag, gen. Kpdrog (a head), and 
o Xag, gen. \aog or \dog (a stone) ; also in com- 
pound adjectives in Kpag, gen. Kparog, as ^aX^o/cpccc, 

gen. ytiXKOKparoc,, 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 29 

(d) those in ag, gen. avrog, have a long in the 
dat. plural only ; e. g, i/ua<ri (from l^ag), ypd^aat 

(from ypa\pag). 

3. In conjugational terminations, a of the pe- 
nultimate is invariably long in am, which is Used 
for the 3 pers. plur. perf. act. and in verbs in jui, 
for the 3 pers. plur. pres. ; e. g. elXi^am, Modm, 
facri. In all other verbal terminations it is short : 

€. g. afxtv, apjv, are, aaav, aro, &C. 

4. In the final syllable of the root, a is long 
before the verbal termination : 

(a) in the aor. 1. act. and med. of verbs in mV> ; 

e. g, eirepava (from irepaivuf), vypava (from vypaiv(o)* 

Comp. §7\, Note 5. 

(b) in the perf. 2, where the a is retained un- 
changed ; e. g. iaya (from ayvvf.ii), edSa (from 
avdavuf), KtKpaya (from /cpa£w). 

Note. An exception from this rule is found in the Epic forms 
of the perf. 2. of verbs pure, which have the a always short ; 
e. g. (3e£aa, ye'yaa, fiijxda, 

(c) Of words in avw, only iKavio (I come), is al- 
ways long in the penultimate ; Kiyavu> (I find) and 
(j)%vix) (I anticipate) have the a long with the Epic 
writers, but are used short by the Attics. All 
others of this termination are short. 

(d) In verbs in aw, a is long when the preceding 
syllable is long, and short when it is short ; e. g. 

ireivduj, $i\pdii) } opdw, yeXdii), yaXdb). Also it is long ill 

the two Attic forms kcho (Iburn) and kXclm (I weep) 
instead of Ka'uo and /cAcuw. Respecting the quan- 
tity of a, when it remains unchanged in the future 
and derivative tenses of verbs in iuo, see $ 77, 

Note 2, a. 



30 PROSODY. 

C. Long a in the middle syllables of derivative 
words. 

1. In derivative words a is usually long, when 
followed by a vowel ; namely, 

(a) in adjectives derived from verbs in ao> ; e.g. 
in all in arig, as Swarig, ayjpahg, Sec. 

(b) in substantives in awv, gen. aovoq or awog ; 

e.g. OTrawv, IToffaSawv, &C. 

2. Before consonants in derivative words, a is 
long 

(a) in substantives and adjectives terminating 

in ajua, aaig, ciTijg, arrjpiog, ariKog, arog, aaifioq, and de- 
rived from verbs in aw, which have a long in the 
derivative tenses, (see } 77, Note 2. a.) ; e.g. ^skafxa. 

Scarce, Searog, oparog, 'icurig, Sripaaifiog, XripariKog. 

Note. On the contrary, derivatives of this kind retain the 
short a when they come from verbs in a£w, dtranu, and a^cu, and 
from such in aa> as have the a short in derivative tenses (see 
§ 77, Note 2. a.); e. g. epydrtjg (from ipyd^ofiai), xXdaig (from 
TrXda-ffoj), Svvdroq (from hvvajiai), ZXdrrjp (from eXdu), future 
IXacrw). 

(b) in proper names in amg, which are either 
derived from substantives in a, or formed inde- 
pendently, as 27rapnar?7C, Tsyearjjc, Ev^parrjg, &C. 

Note. Except, as short, the compounds of this kind, formed 
from verbal roots, as 2w/cpaV*?£, and all terminating in fidrrjg 
and (j)drr]g, as also the following single words : TaXaTTjg, AaXfid- 
rr]g, 2a/m'r??£, &C. 

(c) in proper names in avog, which are accented 
on the final syllable ; e. g. 'Ao-iavoc, Tepnavog, Sec. 

Note. On the contrary, proparoxytones of this termination 
have the short a, as Zkdvog, Adpddvog, &c. 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 31 

(d) in compounds ending in avwp, avopia, and 
Kpavog, and in those beginning with /capa, Kspa, 

and Kpea, (from Kapa, KEpag, and Kpeag); e.g. Biavwp, 
Tpttcpavog, KapaSoKEW, tczparofAog, Kpeavo/doc. 

(e) in compounds derived from the verbal roots 

uy and aS (ayw, I lead, aywixi, I break, avSavu), I 
please) ; €. g. \oyjayog, Kvvayhrjg, vavaysiv, vavayia, 

ai)%§t}Q, ottclIoq, and others of this kind. 

(f) As single derivative words, with long a in mid- 
dle syllables, the following also must be observed : 

a/CjOaroc, aviapog, Siaicovog, veaviag (with the Words 
belonging to these last two), mayuv, oivairi, riapa, 

(paXapoQj (j>\vapog 9 and the derivatives thereof. 
Also the proper names :" 'A/mo-ic," 'Avairog," ' Aparog, 

Osavw, 'lao-wv, Mi^piSar^c, TlplairoQ, ^rv^aXog, ^,vpa- 
Koaai and 'EvpaKocriog, <$>apcra\og. 

D. Long a in the first syllable of Greek words. 
In the first syllable of primitive words, a is to 
be considered long in the following cases : 

(1) dissyllabic substantives in aog, as, Adoc? 
vaoq, and all derivatives thereof, as MtvtXaoq, 

AaOjue&wv, Aao<T<rooc, &C. 

Note. The quantity of a in 'iXaoQ is variable, and in tuoq or 
tuioq (a peacock) always short. 

(2) dissyllabic words in avoq, whose final syl- 
lable is accented ; e. g. Savoq, iravog, Tpavog, (j>av6g, 

and the derhiatives thereof. 

Note. The same rule respecting quantity is also given for 
dissyllabic oxytones in dXoQ ; although of this termination, be- 
sides SdXog (a firebrand), which has the a long, we find only 
kciXoq (beautiful), which the Epic writers use almost invariably 
long, but the Attics short. 



32 PROSODY. 

(3) The following are to be observed as single 
examples of a long in the initial syllable : 

ay/f (a shore, to be distinguished from ay) h sur- 
prise), ai'ip, and all its derivatives beginning with 

«£/>...; aeroc and its Compounds, akvaoq, atSiOQ, 

'a&aXfjQ, mKYi, and ai£, together with all its com- 
pounds in ai£ ; a/iTjrrio*, afiqrocj, ap?jr>ip, «r»j, with 
arfipiog and ar^poc, aSavaroc, aKa/iiaTogy &ayvc; $oa7T£r*?c, 
/ca€a£, /caoa€oe, Kapig, Xaoivog (fat), Xaaivog (afisll), 

Xapog (sweet), 7rpayog, besides all its derivatives 
and compounds, as, e. g. Evirpayia, and generally 
also (frapog, with its compounds. 

Note 1. It is evident that a, when used in Doric for rj, is 
long ; e. g. Mfiog and its compounds, as ApxiBdjiog, &c. Several 
such forms, however, have passed also into the Attic and common 
language, and are therefore always long ; e, g. pySioG (ion, 
pr)'ihoe), <r<ppdyi£j (ion. vtypriyie), rpa-^vQ (ion, rpryxyg), <j>pdrpa 
(ion. fpyjrpTi), and others. 

Note 2. That a is long in forms where it arises by contrac- 
tion, or has i subscript, is already known from the general rules 
(see at the beginning of this §, under 6. b and c) ; e> g. ukojv in- 
stead Of diKb)V, ^^OVJ(pQ, &c. 



SECOND SECTION. 

Long 7 in Greek Words. 

A. Long 7 in the final syllable. 

I. Termination 7, when not followed „by conso- 
nants. 

(1 ) In declension, the termination i is long only 
in the Tonic form of the dat sing, of subst. in «c, 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES, 33 

where « is contracted from a ; e. g. akolrl instead 
of clkoItu (comp. § 43, Note 2). 

2. i is also long when appended to demonstra- 
tive pronouns (see § 60, 1) and some adverbs, to 
enforce their signification ; e. g\ ovto&i, wvl, &c. 

Note. In those adverbs also, which are formed, by means of 
the termination i, from adjectives in og, i is sometimes used long ; 
as, however, in other passages of the poets, such adverbs are de- 
cidedly short, and the manuscripts fluctuate in the use of the 
terminations i and ei, it appears more proper, in all cases where 
the final syllable of these adverbs is long, to prefer the full 
ending, «. 

II. Termination iv. 

The termination w is only to be considered as 
long when it is a collateral form of the termination 
*c, gen. Ivoq ; e. g. $e\$Lv, $e\<pwog, &c. (see § 39. 
XIX. 5). Concerning datives plural in™ of pers. 
pronouns, see 4 58. Note 3, where, from the ac- 
centuation of the different forms adduced, their 
quantity also is determined. 

III. Termination ig. 

1. As a nominative ending ig is long (a) in subs. 

in ig, gen. Ivoc. and l%g ; €. g, aKTig, aKTivog 9 /m'c, 

pivog, Zpvig, ISoe, &c. (comp. § 39. XIX, Notes 4 
and 5)— (b) in monosyllabic subst. of this termina- 
tion, as iclg, &c. — (c) in the several following 
words, which have l^og in the gen. ; tyig, flaXfilg, 

jSarpa-yJc, *Wc, KvjXig, KXrj'ig, KW/Jiig, tcpjimg, vr}ffig, 
afypayig, ayoivig, rzvSig, (j>apKtg y yzipig, iprityig. 

Note. The poets, nevertheless, allow themselves the shorten- 
ing of i in some of these ; while, on the other hand, a great many, 



34 PROSODY. 

which have not been enumerated here, are occasionally used by 
them as long. Others are long with the Ionians, and short with 
the Attics ; e. g. /3\£0apt'e, Kapig, Kepafiie, TrXoKajilg, pa^aWe. 

2. The termination «c is also long when used 
by the Ionians in the nom. and accus. plur. of 
words in ic, instead of ug and tag ; e. g. ZikoItIq in- 
stead of aKolnsg or aKoiTiag. (Comp. § 43. Note 2.) 

B, Long i in the penultimate. 

1. Of words in i£, the oblique cases have i long 
in (a) monosyllables, as $oi£, ^pl/coc, «£, ikqq, #S, 
■fiyoq— (b) dissyllables, whose penultimate is long 
in the nom., as ai'£, aitcoq (a rushing), 7T£oo\$, Ikoc, 
tIttiS, lyoc. Except x°~ lvl %> mogi an( ^ those which 
have a X in the middle, as, rjAi£, Sjcoc. 

2. Of words in ec, all, whose nominative ending 
*c has been given as long, retain t long in the 
oblique cases; seethe preceding, A. III. 1. 

3. Of those in vp, i is long in the oblique cases 
of monosyllables; e. g. Soty, %fnr6q. But Aty, 
Xipog, and vfy, vl(p6q, are excepted. 

4. In comparatives in iwv, neut. cov, with the 
Attics i is, almost without exception, long, in 
Homer always short, and with later Epic writers 
sometimes short and sometimes long. 

5. Respecting the quantity of i, in the penulti- 
mate syllables of verbal forms, the following rules 
obtain : 

(a) verbs in iv<o have i long in the pres. and irn- 
perf., and in the aor. 1. act. and mid., but in all 
the other forms it is short ; e. g. K^iva, imperf. 
j/cplvov, aor. 1. iicplva, perf, Kt/cpiWa, perf. pass. 
KfKpijuai, aor. 1. pass. £Kpl%v. 

S 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 35 

Note, In the two verbs tipu) and </>$tVw, the Epic writers use 
4 long, the Attics short. 

(b) Of verbs in iw, polysyllables always, and 
dissyllables generally, have i long, as, /cvXiw, kovim, 
wvIg), 7ro/w. Exceptions are aiw (I perceive), eaSla), 
(I eat), pavTiiv (I scourge) ; and the collateral forms 
of verbs in i£w, as aria) of <m£w, (I dishonour), which 
have always i short. 

Note, The poets, however, in these words, frequently shorten 
the i, as, e. g* ifxiivie. Horn. II. I. 24>7. In most dissyllables its 
quantity is arbitrary. 

(c) in verbs mute, whose monosyllabic root be- 
gins with two consonants, i is long ; e. g. |3pi$w, 

SA/pw, TTvlyii), rpi/3(u. 

(d) most verbs contract, of a dissyllabic root, 
have i long in the initial, and polysyllables also in 
the middle syllable ; e. g. jSIvlw, KivLa), SIj)aw, /Jvlw, 

viyad), alyao), rifiab), $7/iow, and Others ; SO also ay~iv£(*) f 
a/cpij3ow, eXivvo), 

Note. On the contrary, t is short in the radical syllable of 
those verbs contract which are derived from short primitives, as, 
dBtici<o (from (titer]), QIXeu) (from tyiXog). 

(e) Also i is long in the last radical syllable of 
the perf. 2. of verbs mute ; e. g, irk^fiKa (from 
$oi(7<rw), rkrfiya (from rotfru). In verbs pure, on the 
contrary, it is short, as, &&'d<ri. 

6. The following rules obtain on the length of 
i in the penultimate syllables of derivative words : 

(a) of words in m, dissyllables which begin with 
two consonants have t long, as Sola, aria, ^Xla, (ex- 

d 2 



36 PROSODY. 

Cept fffcia). So KaXla, avia, Kovia, although the last 

frequently, and avla rarely, occur also short. 

Note. The poets also make i long in the penultimate of poly- 
syllables in ia, whose antepenultimate is long ; e. g. dKofiitrrlri. 

(b) i is long in dissyllabic and trisyllabic sub- 
stantives in twv, gen. tovoc, and all proper names in 

iwv, gen. lovoq ; e. g. Kiw, 7roi(ov, (5pa"£tu)v, A(*(j)iu)v. 

As exceptions are to be observed \tuv 9 which com- 
monly, and -h'iwv, which always, has i short. Also 
proper names in «an>, which retain <*> in the gen., 
have i short ; e. g. Kpov'uov, gen. Kpoviuvo? and Koo- 

VWVOQ. 

•(c) proparoxytones in {Xoc and i\ov have i long ; 

€. g, o/mXoq, apyiXoq, tt&iXov* 

(d) in properispomes in tvoq also it is long, as, 
IktIvoq, &c; besides in the following proparoxy- 
tones : KafxivoQ, vaylvov, Kvpuvov, ciXivov, and the two 
oxytones yaXivoq and kfivoq. In adjectives of this 
termination it is short, except oirupivoq, f-izToniapivoq, 
jMGrififipivoq, and op^pivoc, in which it varies its 
quantity to suit the nature of the verse. 

(e) polysyllabic substantives in ivn and iva have 
i long ; e. g. ^wrivn, a&vtj, tpyaaTivr), A'/ylvd. From 
these uXamvri is excepted. 

(f) lastly, i is long in words in irrjq and me, and 
in proper names in irn ; e. g. oTr\lrr\q, teyyvrnq, wo- 
AiVic, 'A<ppo$iTri. Except KpirnQ, as formed from the 
short root Kpu 

(g) also the several following words have i long 
in the penultimate : ukovitov, ivnri), tp&oq, irap%vo- 
mirriQ, rapiyoQ, ^eXISwv, and the proper names Tpa- 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 3? 

VlKOQ, EviTTtVQ, EuOlTTOC, KcUKOC,' 0(7lO(C, BoV(7lOlC, 2£fH- 

#oc, and some others. 

C. Long i in the beginning of Greek words. 

1. Of dissyllabic forms of nouns, with the termi- 
nation oc, those in iXoc, ifxog, ivoc, and ioc, which have 
either an acute on the final, or a circumflex on the 
penultimate syllable, have t long in the radical 

syllable; e. g\ yj.X6g, \piX6g, mXog, Xi/nog, ai/j.6g, (pifiog, 
pivog, $lvog, 7rotvoc, tog, /cpioc, &C. Except (3>i6g (a 

bow), which has the short vowel. 

2. Also dissyllabic diminutives in a£ take i long 
in the radical syllable, as is apparent from the 
accent ; e. g. wXifxa^, 7n3a£, &c. 

Note. In other dissyllabic substantives also, with the ending 
oq, the long t in the radical syllable is evident from the accent, 
as aTirog, /3p7vOf, fTtcrog, gt~kj)oq, and the like. But in dissyllabic 
forms of nouns not ending in oe, t in the radical syllable, when 
followed by a simple fx, is generally long, as in /^ot'/xr/, rip/, 
^pCfjLvg. Only substantives formed from short verbal roots in //a 
retain the i short, as, tcXi/ia, 

3. The quantity of i in verbal roots is deter- 
mined above, under B. 5. a— d. 

4. As single words with i long in the initial 
syllable, the following are principally to be ad- 
duced : 

laofiai, and its derivatives, as larpog, &c. i&vt;, 

iXaog, tArj, iXvg, ijmtpog, ivwv s Sivrj, kXivt], vikyi, oyt/Arj, 

Xiroc, /ui/cooc, jMiikoixai, and its derivatives, yjX ioi, and 
the proper names, "I/capoc, "Ivayog, Slcwv, Yipvv%iog K 
TiTvpog, with some others. 



38 PROSODY. 

THIRD SECTION. 

Long v in Greek Words. 

A. Long v in the final syllable. 

L Termination u, when not followed by Con- 
sonants. 

L As a declensional termination, v is always 
short, except in monosyllabic names of letters, as, 
fxv, and in the word ypv. Also in vocatives of 
words in vq, whose nominative is long, v remains 
long; see below, III. 1. 

2. Adverbs in v are short, except avracpv, which 
occurs both long and short 

3. As a conj ligation al termination, v is long in 
the 3 pers. sing* imperf, and aor. 2. of verbs in 
vfxi ; e, g* £$u, i$v. 

II . Termination w. 

1. As a termination of nominatives, w is long; 

€. g, flOGGVV, 

2. Also, as a termination of accusatives, it is 
long in those words in uc, whose final syllable is 
long in the nominative; see below, III. 1. 

3. In conjugation, w is long as a termination of 
the imperf. and aor. 2. of verbs in v/m ; e. g. ityvv* 

III. Termination vq. 

1. vq, as a nominative termination, is long (a) 
in monosyllables, as Spue, /we; (b) in polysyllabic 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 39 

oxy tones, which take vog, in the gen. ; e. g. ix&>c, 
&i]tvq, &c. ; (c) in the two subst. dayvg, gen. vSog, 
and KwpvQ, gen. v%g ; (d) in participles of this ter- 
mination, e.g. ZzvyvvQ, Sukvvq, &C. 

2. As the termination of the nom. and ace. 
plur. vg is long, being formed by contraction from 
veq and vaq ; e. g. 6<t>pvg instead of ofypvtg and 6<ppvag. 

3. In conjugation, vg is long as a termination of 
the 2d pers. sing, imperf. and aor. 2. of verbs in 
vjjli ; e. g. e&UKvvg, i<j>vg. 

B. Long v in the penultimate syllable. 

1. In nouns, v is long before the casal termina- 
tion : 

(a) in words in w, gen. vvog, as juocro-uv, gen. 

f — 

fioaavvoq. 

(b) in dissyllabic words in v$, whose penulti- 
mate syllable is long by nature, and which take 
k in the genitive, as, Krtpv^, KrjpvKog ; $oi$v%, vKog. Of 
dissyllables, whose penultimate syllable is length- 
ened by position, j3o^j3v£, vicog, and kokkvZ, vyog, 
only have v long before the casal termination. 

(c) of those in v\p, monosyllables only have v 
long in the derivative cases ; e. g. yfy, yvirog. 

(d) of Words in vg, only Sayvg, v$og, and Kwpvg, 

v%g, retain the long vowel in the derivative cases. 

2. The following cases of the lengthening of v 
are to be observed in conjugation : 

(a) verbs in ww and vpw have long v in the pres. 
and imperf. and in the aor. 1. act. and mid.; in all 
the remaining forms of these verbs, which, how- 
ever, are of rare occurrence, the vowel is short ; 



40 PROSODY, 

e.g. fipaSvvu), imperf. £j3pa&jivov, fut* ftpalvvk} -y 

(j>vpit) 9 imperf. i$v-pov. 

(b) to determine with accuracy the quantity of 
v in verbs in vw, they must be distinguished into 
different classes : 

i (a) in verbs in £w, whose root is monosyllabic, 
v in the pres. and imperf. is used arbitrarily ; c. g« 
Xv(*3 and Xvw 9 ^w and^uw. Only %& (I storm, to 
be distinguished from %w, I offer), ^w (I polish), 
and Tpvu) (I waste by rubbing), have always v long ; 
on the other hand, in j%w (I overflow), and kXvw 
(I hear), v is always short. In the fut. and aoi\ 
the v of these verbs is always long ; e. g. Xvacj y 
iXvira, fww, tyvaa. Except from this rule |3Auw (I 
bubble), kvw (I kiss), fiv& (I wink), and tttuoi 
(I spit), which have v short in the fut. and apr., 
thus, /3Xfeo>, kvgu), jiWGh}, itTvab), Also in the perf, 
and pluperf. act. and fut. 3. pass, v is usually long ; 
on the contrary, in all the remaining derivative 
tenses, invariably short ; e. g. Iklma, irtyvKa ; on 
the contrary, also, AtAu/ca, and, without exception,, 
zXvSqv, XiXvfuai ; Tr^irvvfiivoq is the only example of 
v in the perf. pass. 

(0) in verbs in uw, whose root is polysyllabic^ 
the quantity of v is determined according to the 
nature of the preceding syllable; thus, if the 
syllable preceding v is long, v is arbitrary in the 
pres* and imperf., but invariably long in the deri- 
vative tenses ; e. g. kwXvw and jcojAuw, fut. kwAiW, 
aor. pass. l/cwAu^v, &c; As exceptions are to be 
observed aprmo (I order), JXkvw (I draw), and 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 41 

ivrvu) (I prepare), of which the first is used short 
with the Epic writers, and long with the trage- 
dians ; the second always short in the derivative 
tenses with the tragedians, but sometimes long 
with the Epic writers, and the third without ex- 
ception short. On the contrary, if the syllable 
before v is short, v also remains short i& the 
derivative tenses ; e. g\ avvw 3 p&vw, ravva), fut. 

avuaoj, fx&vcrii), ravvaiOy &C. 

(7) in verbs in vm, which have a collateral form 
in vfii, v is short ; e. g. Sukvvoj and ^//c^u^t, vpvvw 
and opvvjuu, &c. 

(c) In verbs in vpi, v is long in the sing, of the 
pres. and imperf. act, and in all numbers of the 
aor. 2. act. It is also long in the opt.* when this 
is formed by the mere annexation of m* and p?v to 
the root, because v in that case stands for vi ; e. g. 
tK^vfAzv, Horn. II. 16, 99 ; Sa/vuro, Horn. II. 24,665. 
The imperat. aor. 2. also, formed with the termi- 
nation Si, has v long; e.g.icXvSi; but shortens it when 
the reduplication accedes ; e. g. kUXvSi, Kt/cAurc. The 
length of v in the participial termination vg has 
been observed above, III. 1. d. ; and this is fol- 
lowed by the fern, in vaa, as appears also from the 
accent. 

Nate. That the 3d pers. plur. pres. also, when vaai is con- 
tracted into v<rt, has v long, is self-evident, and evinced also by 
the accent. 

3. In derivative words, v is long in the penul- 
timate syllable, or in the middle syllables gene- 
rally, in the following cases : 



42 PROSODY. 

(a) in trisyllabic subst. in wii or wa ; e. g. alayyvn. 

Note, x°pv vr l> Tctfivvr], and ropvvr}, are used long only with the 
Attics, but mostly short with Epic writers ; and odvvr) is always 
short. 

(b) in trisyllabic or polysyllabic words in woq, 
when or does not precede this termination ; e. g. 

POXVVOQ, KlV^VVOQy XajVVOg, tvfevVOQ. 

Note. Except the compounds in yv vog, formed from yvvti, (a 
woman), which always have v short ; e. g. dv^poyv 'voq. 

(c) in polysyllabic subst. in vpa, v is long in 
proparoxy tones, as ayicvpa, ytyvpa, oXvpa, and in 
KoWvpa ; otherwise always short, as Xvpa, and the 
like. 

(d) v is long in adjectives in vpoe, when the pre- 
ceding syllable is likewise long ; and short, on 
the contrary, when the preceding syllable is short ; 

e. g. layypoc, oilvpoq \ Oil the Contrary, Xafxvpog, oyv- 

pog, and the like. 

Note, v in aXfivpog is used long by the Attics, but short by 
the Epic writers. 

(e) v is long in masc. of the first declension in 

vrriQ, as TTptafivrrig, &C. 

(f) in the termination uroc, v is long only in tri- 
syllabic subst., whose first syllable is likewise 
long, as KiDKvrog, and the like ; and in compound 

adj. in SaKpvrog and Tpvrog (from dcucpvu) and Tpuuj), 

as aSaicpvTog, aTpvTog, and the like. 

(g) v is long in adverbs in voW, as wpvSov. 

(h) besides these, observe also the following 
individual words with long v in the middle syl- 
lables : 



MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 43 

apapvyfi, tu-yrj, oXoXvyv, and oXoXvywv, together 
With afivfibiv, avTT], and avT&u) ; also, EiXi><£a£w, eiXvog, 
iXvog, lyvvt], epvKWj KtXj(j>og, Xa<pvpov 9 Xiwvpov, irirvpov, 

irairvpog, ^ifxv^iov', lastly, all derivatives from pvSog 
and Svhqq, as TroXvpvSog, a&J/ioe, and the like. 
With the proper names : "AfivSog, ^A^pvaog, 

*ApyyTCLQ, JSripvTOQ, BiSuvoc, Aiovvaog, Ka[Ji(5v<rr}g, Kep- 
Kvpa, Ylayyvov, 

C. Long v at the beginning of Greek words. 

1. v is long in dissyllabic neuters in vXov, as the 
accent also proves ; e. g. <j>vXov, okvXov, &c. From 
this £vXov forms an exception. 

(2.) v is long in dissyllabic oxy tones in vXog, 

vfiog, and vvog ; as yyXog, Sv/mog, Kpvfxog 9 %vvog, &C 

Except 7rXvv6g, which always has v short. 

3. v is long in dissyllabic paroxytones in vptj 
and vvi], as Xv^, ZvfiYi, fivvt], 

4. In neuters in vfia, derived from verbs in vw, 
the quantity is regulated by the radical form (see 
above, B. 2. b). In dissyllables of this kind, the 
quantity is shown by the accent, as Kvfxa, but 
nXvfxa. The polysyllables are mostly long, as 

aprvp.a, cXujua, uXv/ma, tdpvixa. 

5. In dissyllabic neuters in o^ the quantity of 
v is likewise determined by the accent ; most of 
them are long, as ipvypg, Kv$og, GKVTog ; but some 

short, as arvyog, rpvtyog* 

6. The quantity of v in verbs in vu> has been 
treated of above (B. 2. b), and in verbs in vvio 
and vpu) (B. 2. a). It only remains, therefore, that 
we consider the case where u appears in the ra- 



44 PROSODY. 

dical syllable of mute and contract verbs, and to 
this apply the following rules : 

(a) in verbs mute of a monosyllabic root, v is, 
always long ; e. g. ipvyu, fipvyu, tv<j>u), &c. rXv^w 
alone has v short 

(b) in verbs contract v is long when the verb is 
formed from a long primitive, as Kvpou) (from Kvpog), 

Xvneo) (from \vtty}), Sv/Lioojuai (from Sv/ucoq), &c. On 

the contrary, v is short in those in £&>, which exist 
only as a collateral form to a verb liquid, as kv|>em 

tO KVpU), 

Note. It is of course to be understood, that those formed 
from short roots retain the short vowelj as, e. g. gtv yiut (from 
trrvyog). 

7. Of individual words with long v in the radi- 
cal syllable, we must observe the following ; 

yvpog, SvXctKoq, Kv(pog, Xv7rn s jnvs\og 9 /mvicau), jmvpaiva 9 
fxvuv, Trvyrj, TrutXog, irwrirj, irvog, ttvqoq, gvicov, crvpiy^ 
<j(pvpa y rvpoq, uj3oc, vyrj, <f>vXri, <pvGa(o, y^pvaog, \jjvyj). 

Besides the proper names : AvSo'c, Mvvog, Muow, 

^TpVjLiu)V 3 Tvdzvg, Tupw. 

Note. Monosyllables, as fivg, <rvg f or ve, and nvp, have the 
long vowel in the monosyllabic forms, consequently in the nom. 
and ace, but shorten the same in the dissyllabic cases, and in 

compounds derived from them ; e. g. fivog, [xvoK-ovog, avGwrric, 

o 

71 v pay pa, &C, 

Final remark. — In assigning general rules, as 
well as in the enumeration of individual words, 
we have above adduced only the fundamental 
forms, and have passed over their derivatives, in 
order that further space might not be unneces- 



OF ACCENTS. 45 

sarily devoted to this subject. Let it be sufficient, 
therefore, to remark here, that the quantity of the 
primitive is in general transferred to its derivative ; 
as, e. g. %pu(Tot;, and therefore ^vgwq ; XcXujuai, and 
therefore also Xin-oc, aXuroc, Xv&ig; but \vaifit\riQ, 
according to the analogy of \v<j<a. 



OF ACCENTS, OR THE INTONATION OF WORDS. 

§ 9, 

Nature and Signs of the Accents, 

L In -every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to 
be regarded as the fundamental or radical syllable, 
i. e. that which contains the principal idea of the 
word. The rest, on the contrary, which are pre- 
fixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in 
the formation of words, are, in respect to the idea, 
of less weight. 

2. The ascendant importance of the fundamen- 
tal syllable of a word is in every independent 
language indicated by a sharpened elevation of the 
voice in its pronunciation ; as, e. g. du in duty, or 
set in beset. 

3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing 
one syllable of a word is called the tone or accent 
(TrpocwS/ctjaccentus), which can occur (according to 
2) only once in each word, and of itself is one and 



46 PROSODY. 

the same in all words, viz. the acute or elevated 
accent (wpogySla o£ua, accentus acutus). As a 
sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to 
left ( ' ) ; e. g. 6mpty, \6yog. 

4. In comparison with the accented or elevated 
syllable, all syllables of a word which are not 
accented must be spoken with a depressed, i. e. 
unelevated accent (irpogw^la fiapua, accentus 
gravis). This depressed or grave accent is re- 
presented by an opposite sign, viz. a stroke from 
left to right ( * ), so that \6yog was written. But 
because every syllable of a word which has not 
the acute accent is necessarily to be spoken with 
the depressed tone, the sign for the grave is not 
used, but these syllables remain unmarked. 

Note. As an indication of the proper grave (see 4) is unne- 
cessary, its sign is used for another purpose, viz. to mark the 
softened acute at the final syllable of words in a continued dis- 
course. (Comp. below, § 10. B. 3). 

5. If two vowels, the first of which has the 
acute, the second the grave, are united into one 
sound, this long sound receives a sign, which is 
formed by the union of those two, viz. ( M ) or ( A ) ; 
for which, however, a twisted line (") is more con- 
veniently used, indicating that the accent is to be 
lengthened in the pronunciation (irpogySia 7r£pi<r7r<o- 
fxkvt), accentus circumflexus) ; e. g. %Xoc for SfsAoc, 

atofxa for Goojia. 

Synopsis of the Signs of the Accents. 

( ' ) Acute, as a sign of the sharpened tone (ac- 
cording to 3), 



OF ACCENTS. 47 

( ' ) Grave, as a sign of the softened tone (ac- 
cording to note 1). 

( 1 ) Circumflex, as a sign of the lengthened 
tone (according to 5). 

Note 2. An accurate distinction must be made between accen- 
tuation itself and the signs of the same. Accentuation exists in 
every independent language, and is as old as that language, im- 
parting to it life, vigour, and harmony ; but the signs are never 
necessary till the language degenerates and becomes extinct ; 
for so long as this lives and flourishes, it is obvious to every one 
that we acquire with the language itself a correct knowledge 
of its accentuation. s 



§ 10. 

Position of the Accents. 

In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, 
it is necessary (A) to determine the syllable on which 
the accent rests ; (B) to know the sign by which, 
according to the nature of that and the remaining 
syllables of the word, the accent is to be indi- 
cated. Concerning these two points, we shall 
here shortly assign what admits of accurate de- 
finition. 

A. Determination of the accented Syllable. 

1 . A Greek word can have its tone or accent 
only on one of the three last syllables. 

2. In simple radical words (L e. those which are 
formed with a definite termination from an exist- 
ing root, and not derived from a word already 
formed), the accent rests on the radical syllable ; 
e. g. root Xey, whence Xfy* (I say), Xe£ic (expres- 
sion), Xoyog (speech). 



48 PROSODY. 

3. In words which are derived from others, 
either by a prefix or an appended termination, 
the accent usually rests on the supplemental 
part (because this, as the sign of distinction 
from the radical word, defines the idea) ; e. g. 
from \6yog deriv. aXoyog (speechless) ; from Kapnog 
(fruit) deriv. aKapirog (fruitless), evKapnog (fruitful) ; 
from Xlyw deriv. \ekt6q (said), and XeKrkog (to be 
said) ; from %p (animal) deriv. Syplov (animalcule, 
usually a wild beast). 

4. The nature of the final syllable has a deci- 
sive influence upon the position of the accent : 
viz. if the final syllable of a word is long by na- 
ture, the accent cannot lie farther towards the 
beginning of the word than on the penultimate 
syllable. 

The following cases are to be noted as excep- 
tions from this last rule : 

(a) a), which the Attic and Ionic dialects make 
use of in declension for o of the other dialects, has 
no influence on the position of the accent. It is 
right, therefore, to accentuate vTripirXewg (instead of 
virepirXeog, over-full), pivoKzpug (a rhinoceros), §vva- 
fxzwg (of power), ! Arptc)£(i> (of Atrides), &c. 

(b) the same holds of the syllables m and vi as 
terminations in declension and conjugation : hence 
we properly accentuate TpanzZai (tables), Xkyzrai (it 
is said), iXafyoi (stags). The termination of the 
3d pers. sing, opt., however, again forms an ex- 
ception to this, and obtains as long in reference 
to the accent. We are, therefore, to accentuate 

SKfytpoi, not £K(j>epoi (from iic<p£p(j>S) ; viKrivai, not viKtiGat 
as Opt. of viKaw)* 



OF ACCENTS. 49 

. Note I. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions 
are found in Greek, so that it is extremely difficult, and in many 
cases even impossible, to adduce definite and adequate general 
rules for the position of the accent. Hence particular rules must 
be subjoined for the several classes of words, as will be done 
below in the declensions and conjugations; see § 32. 4. to the 
end— § 33. 2. to the end— § 37.— § 48.— J 76. 

5. Some small words are so unimportant of 
themselves, that in discourse they almost unite 
their sound with the following word, and there- 
fore remain unaccented. These are the forms 
o, vi, 6t, ai, of the article, besides the prepositions 
sic or ee, *v or uv (in), e/c or c£ (out of), the conjunc- 
tions a (if), uyc (as, since, that), and the negative 
ou, oi>/c, oi>x (not). They are called urova (toneless) 
or Trpo/cAinfca (proclitic). Some of them, on a 
change of signification or position, receive the 
acute, viz. (1) the adduced forms of the article, 
when used as relative pronouns ; (2) log, when it 
either stands for ovTwg (so), or, in the significa- 
tion as, is placed after the chief word ; e. g. kcocol 
tog, as cowards ; (3) ov or ovk, when it directly 
denies without an additional word, like the Eng- 
lish no, or is placed after the word which it 
negatives. 

B. Sign of the Accent, according to the Nature oj 
the Syllables. 

If the syllable, on which the tone rests, is 
known, the question then is, with what sign it is 
to be accented. Concerning this the following 
rules obtain : 

1. The acute can stand on each of the three last 

E 



50 PROSODY. 

syllables; e.g. mkqq (bad), ?roAtt;(a town), avSoa>7roc 
(a man) ; but on the third syllable from the end 
only when the last syllable is by nature short ; 

thus, €. g. avSpwTrov, avSpa>7T( t tf, avSpwiroiQ, although 

the nom. is marked avSpwTroc 

Note 2. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute 
can stand on the antepenultimate in case only of a short final 
syllable, see above, A. 4. 

2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable 
by nature long, and only on the final or penulti- 
mate syllable, but never on the penultimate un- 
less the final syllable is by nature short ; e. g. 
Ilepc/cXric, kclkov (of evil), x^P ^ (space), AaVe (leave), 
on the contrary AaVav (to leave) ; yet Xetyw, x^P m 
(according to A. 4. exception b). 

3. The grave (comp. above, § 9. Note 1.) appears 
only on the last syllable of words standing in a 
continued discourse, as a sign of the softened 
tone of the acute ; e. g. avrip (a man), ayaSog 
(brave) ; but in connected discourse avrip aya%6g ov 
4>a)y£i (a brave man fleeth not away). 

Note 3. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would 
be interrupted by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on 
the final syllable of a word, alone renders necessary the transi- 
tion of the acute into the gravis. This change, therefore, must 
not take place before one of the greater signs of interpunction 
(period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, when it indicates a 
really distinct member of a proposition (as, e. g. subjoined defini- 
tions of time, conditions, reasons). But we also use the comma, 
jn assigning nearer definitions and predicates, before relatives 
and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently the 
internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted ; and 
in this case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on 
the final syllable before the comma. Thus it is proper to write : 
ri M, rjv ^prjfjLara iroWa i\rf tiq ; and in like manner ol fiev dyaSot, 



OF ACCENTS. 51 

01 c)£ kcucoi (because here is a perceptible caasura in the dis- 
course) ; but Trarijp, og edwKe, and eXeye ttoXXci, <bg, k. t. X. (be- 
cause here no abrupt separation of the single members of the pro- 
position occurs). 

4. If the third syllable from the end is accented, 
it always possesses the acute. 

Note 4. Words have denominations according to the position of ^ 
the accent. If the final syllable bears the acute, the word is called 
an o^vropoy, oxy tone (e.g. tccucog); if the circumflex, TreoiGTr6)^tvov t 
perispome (e. g. ttoieiv, to do) ; if the final syllable is unaccented, 
the word is fiapv-ovov, barytone ; and if the accent rests on the 
penultimate as an acute, the word is Trapo&rovov, paroxytone 
(e. g. vdfiog, law) ; if as a circumflex, TrpoTrepicnrwfievov, properi- 
spome (e. g. o-d^ua, body) ; lastly, if the acute stands on the 
third syllable from the end, the word is 7rpo7rapo^vToroy, propa- 
roxytone (e. g. avSpioKoe). 

5. If the final syllable is accented, it always 
bears the acute (or, in continued discourse, the 
gravis), except when it arises by contraction, or 
forms the genitive and dative of the two first de- 
clensions, or belongs, as the termination, to ad- 
verbs in wc; e. g. flaaiXivc (a king), but fia<n\ei 

(COntr. from ficiGlXEl) ; KCIKOQ, Ka/C?'j, KOLKOVQy but KCLKOV, 

Kauris, /ca/cw, KaKy, Ka/cwv, KctKotq (as gen. and dat. of 
the two first declensions); kcikuq (as an adverb). 

Note 5. As an exception to this rule, it must be observed 
that the circumflex stands on many monosyllabic words, and on 
the vocative of the termination evq in the third declension, when 
the nominative has the acute on the final syllable ; e. g. ttov 
(where) ? 7rwg (how) ? vvv (now), -Kvp (fire), ttglq, ttolv (whole), 
fiamXev (vocative of fiaffiXtbg). 

6. Every dissyllabic word, whose penultimate 
is long by nature, and followed by a short final 
syllable, is marked with a circumflex on the pen- 
ultimate ; e. g. %pS)fia (a thing), -yjoooc, r *"x° c - a 
wall), fceto&ai (to lie). 

e 2 



52 PROSODY. 

For practice in placing the proper accent, let 
the accented syllables in the following section, 
which are indicated by a point, be marked with 

the requisite signs : HcrtScc £/*oi Kai iravTtg oi irapov- 
reg cjiiXoi, £[ioi julzv tov (genit.) j3iov to tz\oq '17^ napta- 
tiv' eic woXXtov (genit.) tovto aatywg (adverb) yiyvwtr/coj* 
vfxaq (coiltr.) §£ \pr\ 9 orav reXturrjcrw, wg 7T£oi Evdaijmovog 
kfxov (genit.) Kai Xeyav Kai ttoiuv (contr.) -rravTa, 

Note 6. As the accent is heard only with a vowel, its sign 
can only stand over a vowel. In a diphthong, the accent, like 
the breathing, stands on the second vowel ; and if the accent and 
breathing come together at the beginning of a word, the acute or 
grave is put next to the breathing, but the circumflex over it ; 
e. g. opvtg (a bird), alfxa (blood). 



§ 11. 
CHANGE OF THE ACCENTS. 

If a word, possessing an accent, experiences 
such a change by declension, or conjugation, or 
composition, that either the number or measure of 
its syllables is increased, the accent also is usually 
changed. These changes of the accent are of a 
threefold kind, namely, 

1. The accent remains on the syllable on which 
it stands, but is itself altered, and 

(a) becomes an acute from a circumflex ; e. g. 

crwjuaroc, from <j(opa; yupov, from yjopog ; KU}X&a, 

from kug%i (according to § 10. B. ,2). 

(b) a circumflex from an acute ; e. g. fevys, from 
<pwyu) (according to § 10. B. 6). 



OF ACCENTS. 53 

How are ruyovq, Tuyza, from ruyoq (a wall), to be 
accentuated ? also kolXti, koiXov, koiXov, koiXcov, 
KoiXa, all from fcotXoc (hollow) ? 

2. The accent advances towards the end of the 
word : 

(a) if the word is increased by the annexation 
of syllables, so that the original accented syllable 
has more than two syllables behind it (comp. § 

10. A. 1) ; e. g. av%pL07roiGi, from avSpwwoQl faXUcrori, 

from jSeXoc (a shaft) ; ttivovtwv, from ttivoj (I drink) ; 

eaTtWUSriv, from areXXu) (I send). 

(b) if the word receives a termination, which 
always or usually has the accent ; e. g. t&tv$loq> 

TZTvtyLvdl, TV<fiuQ, TETWjUjUEVOC, all formed from TVTTTCJ 

(see below concerning the position of the accent 
in the verb, § 76) ; ^oc, from S>)o ; Ki6q, from kiq 
(see below concerning the position of the accent 
in the third declension, § 37). 

(c) if, in the change of the word, the final syl- 
lable, which was before short, becomes long ; 

e. g. avSpw7rou, from av^pwiroq ; krLpov, from ertpoq ; 
Trpayjuorwv, from irpayfia (see § 10. B. 1). 

How should I accentuate aio^ari, o-oty/arwv, from 

aw/Lia ? Kopaicwv, from KopatZ, ? f^iXfgffOrjv from, (j>iXUo 

(I love) ? kektSw and KacrSwv, from Ku/nai (I lie) ? 
f/SouXfaro, from ftovXofiai (I will) ? 

3. The accent is drawn back towards the be- 
ginning of the word. This takes place 

(a) if the word receives additions at the begin- 
ning, or the cause is removed which held the ac- 
cent on the penultimate syllable (comp. § 10. A. 3) ; 

* e.g. ZTVWTOV, ETV7TTE, froill TVTTTd) (I beat) \ WdlStVE, from 

iraiStvo) (I educate); a<£{Xoc (friendless), from <j>i\oq 



54 PROSODY. 

(a friend) ; gvvqSoq (a congress), from o&>c (a way, 
going). 

(b) if in dissyllabic words the final syllable, 
which should bear the accent, is dropped on ac- 
count of a succeeding vowel ; e. g. tffi eyu (for 

<j>ri/jLi) 9 ttoXX iiraSlov (for TroAAa), Sav lr\rjv (for $£iva). 

Exception. Prepositions and particles, when 
the accented final vowel is dropped, remain un- 
accented ; e. g, fV avTov (for tVi), Trap* hfioi (for 
Trapa)) aXX' tyw (for aXAa), ou$ oX/yov (for ouSs). 

How must I accentuate Itvtttov, from tvtttu 1 

Itywyov, from (javyix) ? ttyiXeov, l^eXcovro, <j>i\zo)fi&la, from 

tjuXet*) 1 /3i/3ouX£V(j^£ and fiov\zvz<&wv y from fiovXtvu 1 



§ 12. 

RECESSION OF THE ACCENT TO A PRECEDING 
WORD. 

1. Several small words unite themselves so 
closely in respect to sense with the preceding 
word, that they must be blended with it, as it 
were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw 
back their accent on the preceding word, and 
hence derive the name enclitics (}i6pia i-y/cXtrt/ca). 

2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun 
At; r\ through all the cases ; the oblique cases of 
the personal pronouns fiov or ^v f pot, \xk> gov or otv, 

aoi, gz, oi) or k-o, and iStv, ot, f, /HIV, vtv, <r^>£, atywt, 
G<jno'iv 9 (Hpewv, g<j>igi or gQigiv, and <r<piv f G(j>iag, atyia ; 

together with the pres. indie, of ufii and <jmpl (ex- 
cept the second person sing, uq or u, thou art, 

^c, thou sayest) •; lastly, the adverbs and parti- 



OF ACCENTS. 55 

deS 7TWC/, 7TW, 7TOt, TTT), TTOV, 7TO&C, TTC&Lv , 7TOT£, T£, TOt, 
}/£, K€ (/CEv), %V, VU (vuv), 7T£p, pa. 

3. All these words throw back their accent, as 
acute, on the last syllable of the preceding word > 
but the accentuation of that preceding word de- 
cides whether this accent must be expressed or 
not. Concerning this, the following rules are to 
be observed : 

(a) if the preceding word is accented on the 
final syllable (oxytone or perispome), or is marked 
with the acute on the penultimate (paroxytone), 
the enclitic loses its accent without further 
change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident 
that the grave becomes an acute, because, pro- 
perly, the enclitic unites itself immediately to the 
preceding word, and the accent syllable is there- 
fore no longer to be considered as standing at the 
end of the word. Thus we write avr\p ng (as it 

were avrjarie), ayaSog re KaXog re, <j>i\(l) o"£, fxa£lr}Twv 
Tivd)V } avSpa tc, <j>i\og /ulov. 

Exception. In the last case, when the preced- 
ing word has an acute on the penultimate syl- 
lable, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper ac- 
cent ; e. g. y\V \6yOQ 7T0T£ kvaVTIOQ <J(j)l<JlV. 

(b) if the preceding word is accented with a 
circumflex on the penultimate, or an acute on the 
antepenultimate (properispome, or proparoxy- 
tone), the accent, thrown back from the enclitic, 
stands as an acute on the final syllable ; e. g. 

av%p(i)ir6g £<m Svtjrog. — o Kpoiaog wore eAe^ev. 

Note 1. If several enclitics follow one another, the preceding 
always takes the accent of the succeeding, and the last only re- 
mains unaccented ; e. g, el rig riyd tynei pot irapEivdi, 



56 PROSODY. 

(c) the enclitic retains its accent (1) in personal 
pronouns after a preposition; e. g. mpl oov, irapa 
ooi, 7Tpog ok ; and, in this case, the longer forms of 
the pronoun of the first person, kfxov, kpol, kpk, must 
always be used ; e. g. t£ k/*ov (not c/c /mov), kv kpol 
(not kv /not) ; (2) in kari (which then draws back its 
accent to the root), when it is used in the empha- 
tical signification : there is, there exists, it is situated, 
or stands followed by an infinitive for i&oTi, it is 
possible, one can ; e g. Swqzotiv, there is a God; 
tony ovt(*)q, it is so situated, the case is so ; ianv 
i<W, there is to be seen. 

Note 2. The enclitic also retains its tone when an apostro- 
phised particle precedes it ; e. g. ttoXXoI <T elaiv. 

4. From the (2) adduced enclitics must yet be 
distinguished the particles & and & or &v, which 
entirely lose their independence, and become in- 
corporated with the preceding word. Strictly 
considered, in annexing these particles to a word, 
the given rules of inclination ought also to be 
observed. On the contrary, & or &v is usually 
regarded as any other appended termination; 
and thus we write o'Ucfttv, not oLco&v (from oIkoc). 
In the particle Se, however, two cases are to be 
distinguished ; thus, if it is annexed to forms of 
nouns, it has the same influence as every other 
enclitic, and hence we write oLeo'vSs (from oi'koc), 
"AiSo'cS* (from "Ate), So/igv& (from dopoc) ; but, if it 
is annexed to demonstrative pronouns, the accent 
of the principal word advances towards that of the 
particle, and passes unto the syllable immediately 
before £>£ ; e, g. roaocii (from roVor), tov&cS* (from 



MARKS OF READING. 57 

rococ). And this accent thus retains itself regu- 
larly through all the cases and forms : conse- 
quently roff/jSe, rotroiOE, rocrovgSz ; but Too-ouck, roawSt, 

ToaySe, togou^ (according to § 10. B. 5). 



§ 13. 
MARKS OF READING. 

1. For a period and comma, the same signs are 
used by the Greeks as by us ; the colon and semi- 
colon are designated by a point above the line ; 
e. g. £TV(j>\a)<j£ /u£* Kal Tv(j>\6g el/mi. A sign of interro- 
gation has this form ( ; ), and, although no sign of 
exclamation occurs in the older editions, yet, after 
prepositions of feeling and interjections, it is well 
to put the one in use amongst us ; e. g. w /not, twv 

Trapovrwv /ca/cwv ! <pzv ! (j>zu ! 

2. Diastole, or hyperdiastole, has the same 
sign with the comma, and is used in certain small 
compound words, to distinguish them from 
others ; e, g. o,™ (whatever, from o(mg), o,™ 
(which also, from oc and rf), for distinction from 
on (that) and ore (since) ; a method, however, at- 
tended with less interruption, and, at the same 
time, equally perspicuous, is simply to write the 
syllables of such words separate, and without the 
inserted mark, thus ; o ™ and o re instead of o,™ 
and o,t£, which some editors have lately even 
adopted. 



58 PROSODY. 

3. Sign sof separation are put when two collid- 
ing vowels should not be read as a diphthong, 
but separate ; e. g. aiSrjg (a-ides), npavg (pra-us). 

4. An apostrophe ( ' ) is used when a short 
vowel is dropped at the end of a word, because 
the following word begins with a vowel ; e. g. 

W £jU£ (for ETTc), CLTT tKUVOV (for O.TTO £/c). 



§ 14. 
DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 

1. If a Greek word is to be resolved into its 
single syllables, or one or more syllables detached 
from the whole word, the rule obtains chiefly, that 
a syllable in general ends with a vowel, and the 
following one begins with a consonant. 

2. For a consonant which cannot stand at the 
end of an entire genuine Greek word, must not 
stand at the end of a syllable. But a Greek word 
terminating with a consonant can only terminate 
in K y v, p, a (£, %p) ; consequently, all other conso- 
nants which occur in the middle of a word must 
not be referred to the preceding, but to the fol- 
lowing syllable; e. g. £-/3So-^oe, o-y$o-oc, Tu-7rrw, 

Xl-Xc-* y/xat, Ka-^ioc, Tv-ipw^ rv-<j>%ug 9 and even £-o£Aoc? 

3. This rule, however, is subject to several ex- 
ceptions, which must be particularly noticed : 

(a) of two like consonants standing next each 
other, one is referred to the preceding, the other 



DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 59 

to the following syllable ; e. g. aX-Aoe, afx-poq, 

ey-yvg, iraTr-iroq, irpaT-ru), £<r-olerai, ap-p-qv. 

(b) a liquid (\,n,v, p), followed by another con- 
sonant, belongs to the preceding, not to the fol- 
lowing syllable ; e. g. eX-zcw, av-$po;-7roe, ap-tyi, Kap- 

ttoq, Xap-wpoQ ; pv , however, is never separated, 
but always referred entire to the following sylla- 
ble ; 6. g. a-fXVQQ, flZ-flVTil-GO. 

(c) a tenuis standing before a kindred aspirata 
is referred to the preceding syllable ; e. g. Ba*> 

\OQ 9 2a7r-^w, tear-Save. 

4. In compound words, syllables are divided 
according to their composition; wherein, however, 
it is to be observed, that the consonant of the 
prefixed word, if a short vowel has been omitted, 
is referred to the succeeding vowel of the root ; 

C g. irpoq-fykpb), Ev-imviov, irpoq-Taaab), ovv-tK-Seyo/nai, 
€$-rjyrj(Tie ; on the Contrary, ira-peyo) (from napa), 
a-vkyb) (from ava), h-iripyofiai (from kiri). In like 

manner, also : a-^' ov (from ano), £-</>' w from knl). 



60 PROSODY, 

CHAPTER III. 
CHANGE OF THE LETTERS. 



4 15. 

The Greeks were guided in the structure of 
their language by the laws of harmony, perspicuity, 
and ease of pronunciation. But, to secure these re- 
quisites, it was necessary, in the derivation of 
words and forms, partly to avoid the concurrence 
either of too many consonants, or of those which 
could not easily be pronounced together, and 
partly the succession of several vowels, each of 
which required a distinct and separate pronuncia- 
tion. This led to the introduction of numerous 
changes, determined according to certain rules, 
and essential to be known by every one who is 
anxious not to experience perpetual difficulties in 
the development and representation of Greek 
words. 

General Rules upon the Change of Consonants. 

1. To be able to comprehend these changes, 
it is necessary perfectly to understand the division 
of consonants (§ 5). 

2. In reference to that division, the following 
general rules chiefly obtain : 

A. Consonants which are pronounced with the 



CHANGE OF THE LETTERS. 61 

same organ, or possess the same property, are 
frequently interchanged with each other. 

Examples to this rule are afforded in the obser- 
vation of the different dialects, although mostly 
not in an universal and complete analogy, but 
only in individual cases. Hence we form two 
classes thereof, and specify, in the first, those 
cases of the change of consonants which occur 
either generally, or at least very frequently, 
in different dialects; but, in the second, those 
which are established only in individual examples. 

(a) Usual change of kindred consonants in dif- 
ferent dialects. 

(«) Instead of the Ionic era, the Attic dialect has 
frequently it. 

Ionic. Attic. 

Examples. 7rprj<ra(jj, Trparrw (I do). 

rao-ffw, raTTto (I order). 

yXwaaa, yXwrra (tongue). 

SaXavcja, ^aXarra (sea). 

Note 1. Exceptions from this rule are: (1) if co-is formed by 
a mere poetic reduplication of the simple a (comp. § 1 9), it must 
remain unchanged also in the Attic dialect ; hence we can never 
form TEiyzTTi for rdyeaai (for reiytai, dat. plural of reiyoo), nor 
yiXaTTEv for yiXaaaev (for yeXatrev, aor. of yeXdcj) — (2) some 
verbs with oo occur in this form alone ; e. g. Tcdaau) (I sprinkle), 
fipdaaio (I shake), izTiaGu (I pound), kpiaait) (I row) — (3) even 
in those words which interchange tt and cc, both forms fre- 
quently occur with the Attic writers ; e. g. 'iirpaaaov and eVpar- 
tov, &c. 

(|3) Instead of the Ionic o<r, the Attic dialect has 
sometimes pp. 

Ionic. Attic. 

Examples, ap^v, apfav (male). 

Kop&ri, Kopp*} (cheek). 



62 PROSODY. 

Note 2. This change can never take place if pp is formed 
either by a sharpened pronunciation of the simple p, or by the 
assimilation of v before p (comp. § 18. 8). Consequently, eppi<pa 
(pi. of ptTTTO)), ayppciTrrio (from avv and pdirrio), &c. remain un- 
changed. Also in many radical words this change was not ad- 
mitted, but only one given form existed ; as, e. g. Uepacu, &c. 

(y) interrogative particles beginning with ?r, and 
pronouns, together with words formed from pro- 
nouns by prefixing o, have, in Ionic, k instead 

Of 7T. 

Examples. Att. 7T0U, 7TWC, WW, 7TOT2, TTOtOQ, 07TOkOQ, &C. 
lOn. KOV, KWg, /CW, KOT£, KOIOQ, OKOlOq 9 &C. 

(b) Change of consonants, in single examples 
out of the different dialects : 

(a) in Ionic and Attic, a tenuis interchanges with 
its kindred aspirata ; e. g. Att. Se^o^ai (I receive), 
Ion. deico/uai; Att. a53tc (again), Ion. avng; Att. 
y^Tiov (a coat), Ion. k&mv ; Att. a^vSaXpoQ (a shin- 
gle), Ion. o-KcvoaA/ioc. ; Att. svravSa and zvtzvSev (here, 

hence), Ion. evSavra, IvSeutcv. 

Q3) <r, in the Ionic dialect, interchanges with r 
partly in the Doric, partly in the Attic dialect ; 
e. g. instead of <™, ool (thou, to thee), Doric and 
Epic tv, roi ; instead of crcvrXov (beet), otjjueoov (to- 
day), gy)tzq (this year), <jvpfir\ (noise), Attic tevtXov, 

TuijULEpov, Ttireq, Tvpflrj, &C. 

(y) liquids interchange with each other ; e. g. 
v with X, as in vlrpov (soda), ttXo/juwv (the lungs), 
which in Attic are Xlrpov and irvivfuov. The Doric 
dialect is particularly partial to the change of X 
into v before lingual letters ; e. g. Doric, fivSov (I 
came), evSuv (to come), ^evtkttoq (the best), instead 

of the USUal forms ?JX$oi', eX&ii', j3eXr<crroc. 



CHANGE OF THE LETTERS. 63 

B. A t sound (S 9 r) can be preceded only by 
that f or k sound ((3 ir tj>, y k y), which has the 
same property with it. 

Hence, in the formation of Greek words, we 
must change 

T£rptj3rai into TETpiTTTai. 

ykypafyrai ■ — yiypairrai, 

pcnrSog — pafiSog. 

£7riypa(j>$T}v - — £7rryoa|3o^v. 

Tpif3%f]<JoiLicii Tpi<j)%r}<jo/Liai, 

XeXeyrai — - AlAffcrai. 

okcooq — oy$oog. 

l7Ti/3f)£^r)v sirifipsySriv. 

ETrX&KZtiv — tTrXiyZrjv. 

Af-y Srjo-o/uat — Xzy%r}<JO/uiai. 

Exception. In composition, the preposition *k 
remains unchanged before every t sound ; e. g. 
£K$i$6vai (to edit), tK%iuvai (to expose). 

C. Three or more consonants cannot stand 
immediately together ; but one of them (usually 
an a standing between two consonants) must be 
omitted, or such forms entirely avoided ; e. g. 

Instead of tetv^e we say tetv^e. 

7T£7rA£%<79'ai — - 7T£7rX£^at. 

TETVfpVTCLl — TETV^CiTai OY TETVfAflE- 

voi uai. 

Note 3. Yet this rule is subject to several exceptions, in 
which three consonants actually occur together ; namely, (1) in 
compounds where perspicuity of derivation renders the retention 
of the third consonant necessary ; e. g. ektttvo), kKa-rrivSio, dvc- 
(pSaproe. (2) if the first or last of the three consonants is a liquid 

2 



64 PROSODY. 

(\, p, v, p), whereby the harshness of pronunciation is softened ; 
e. g. £KK\r]aictj TrefupSeig, ai:\rjp6g, u<7$^ua, alcr^pog. 

Note 4. Even the concurrence of two consonants can occasion 
a harshness of pronunciation which must be avoided. It is re- 
markable, that the Greeks, in certain instances, increased this 
harshness by the insertion of a third consonant. Thus, if \i or y 
happens to stand immediately before p or X by the omission of a 
vowel, then between the two liquids that middle letter is inserted, 
which belongs to the same organ with the first liquid ; conse- 
quently, /3 after //, and 2 after v, e. g. dvi)p (a man), genit. avipot;, 
syncop. dvpog, and for it avdpoQ- — fxearjfjiepia (mid-day), syncop. 
fxecrrjfjipla, and for it fieffrffj-jSpia. 

D. Two syllables following one another, cannot 
both begin with an aspirata ($, %, S); but in this case 
the aspirata, which stands at the beginning of the 
first syllable, is changed into its kindred tenuis. 

Examples. For ^c^tXn/co we say irc^iXqica. 

yzywpr\Ka — - Kzyjopritca. 
Sj&vyiko. — r&5vr)Ka . 

Exceptions. (1) The passive termination ^v, 
and all its derivative terminations which begin 
with $, have no influence upon the preceding as- 
pirate; and thus we write wpSwStyv, kyv%v, %a$%- 
dovTai, Speffivai. In the verbs %uv and T&evat 
alone $ is changed into r before those termina- 
tions ; e. g. CTV^rjV, £T&Y}V. 

2. So also the adverbial terminations &V and 

$i ; e. g. TravTay^oftev, KopivSoSt. 

3. In most compounds also the rule is ne- 
glected ; e. g. av%o<p6pog, E(j)V(palvtt). 

4. The reverse case of that laid down as a rule 
occurs in the imperative termination &,- which, 
when the preceding syllable begins with an aspi- 
rata, is changed into n ; e. g. tv^ti for rv(p%%i 



CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 65 

(imperat. aor. 1. pass, of tutttw). Yet even this is 
not a general rule, as the forms <pa%i (say, from 
<i>r,/.d) and Tt&va&i (die, from Sv/?<7/cw) prove, but 
holds merely of the imperat. aor. l.pass. ; for the 
forms tISzti and Sen (from n%pi) exist in grammar 
alone as schemes of a possible formation. 

Note 5. Attention must be paid particularly to the verbs 
rpityio (I nurture), rptx^ (I run), and rvtpio (I singe), (produced 
from $ps<pt, S'pcX' an ^ ^^>), whose simple form has already expe- 
rienced the change of the first aspirata, which must again appear 
as an aspirata when in the derivative forms the second one is 
omitted ; e. g. in the future of those verbs, $pe\pco, Spefyfiai, 
Svipw, as also in the words derived from it ; e. g. $ pip pa, but 
rpo(j}ri. 

Note G. In the words 3"pi| (hair), SctTrrw (I bury), and Spvrrritj 
(I break in pieces), the second aspirata has already been omitted 
in the simple form, and consequently the first remains. But on 
the second aspirata again appearing in the derivative forms, the 
first must vanish ; e. g. rpixvQt erdywv. 

E. When the rough breathing meets with a 
tenuis, it changes the same into an aspirata, not 
only in composition, but even in accidental concur- 
rence ; €. g. ifodog (from kirl and ococ), SsyjifjitpoQ 
(from Zttca and r^iEoa), k<f> r)p,tpav (for £7T* rifiEpav), aty 
ow (for air ov), ou% wg (for ovk). 

Note 7. The Ionic dialect retains the tenuis unchanged in both 
cases; e.g. obtc o>q, Ka-iivat (Att. KaSuuai, from Kara and livai), 
Itt f)/Jiipay, &c. 

Note 8. On the other hand, in some compounds the tenuis is 
changed into the aspirata, even when it falls merely into the same 
syllable with the rough breathing, although a letter still inter- 
venes between them. Examples of this kind are Sotpdnov (for 
ro ifidnov), (ppoipiov (contracted from tt pool /iiov), tioovdog (formed 
from rcpo and vhoc^reSpiTnrov (from rerpo,for rerrupa, and 'tTriroi;). 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 16. 

CHANGE OF MUTES BEFORE p IN THE MIDDLE 
OF WORDS. 

1. /3, 7T, (j>, immediately preceding /u, are changed 
into ^u. 

For TZTpifi/nai, r£ru7Tjuai, yiypa^/uai, 
Write TeTpifxjuiai, rervfifiai, -yeypa/i/icu. 

2. k and %, immediately before p, are changed 
into y. 

For c)£§o/Cjuat, AsAe^ai, 
Write §£§oyjj,aij XeXzyjiai. 

Note 1. This rule, however, is by no means invariably ob- 
served in the formation of independent Greek words, as appears 
from cLKfii) (a point), reoxpoQ (new), and the like ; and even in 
derivative forms it is sometimes neglected, as in the Homeric 
aKa^fiivoQ (sharpened, from an assumed root cfca^aj). 

3. 8, &, r, and I, immediately before fx, are 
changed into a. 

For ^fyta, 7rf7T€t%tat, rjWTjj,ai 9 ;/>r/0t£)ua, 
Write aafia, 7r€7r£i(7jiiai, rjvtKXjuai, ifjr\$iGfxa. 

Note 2. The Epic and Ionic dialects present frequent devia- 
tions from this rule ; e. g. ofyu/ (smell), ISpey (we know), and 
the like. 



§ 17. 

CHANGE OF MUTES BEFORE * 

1. |3, it, f, are united with a into the double 
consonant ^. 



CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 67 

Pot* Tpl(3&U)j TVTTGIO, ypCKJXZWy 

write rpiipw, r'viptef ypaipio. 

2. y, k, x, are united with a into the double 
consonant $. 

For Aeyorw, 7tX£/C(T6l>, TSv^&OfAai, 
write \lt,iti f wXe^oj, rtv^ofiau 

Exception, k of the preposition e/c remains un- 
changed before <r in composition ; e.g. £kgo(3uv (to 
frighten out), fWracne (madness). 

3. S, Sr, r, and 2, are rejected before <y. 

For ttooVc, 7rX?'j^crw, crw/tiaTcri, ap7ra£<rw, 
Write 7ro0i, wXijffw, owfiaai, attracti). 

Note 1. If the T sound is, besides, preceded by p, this also 
disappears before a ; but the short vowel which stood in such a 
syllable changes into a long sound, namely, e into e«, o into ov ; 
and a, t, v, are lengthened in the pronunciation ; e. g. 

From cririv^tro) is formed (nreiaw. 
XioPTffL — Xiovai. 

■KaVTCFl — TtCLffl. 

ZilKVVVTffL — ^EIKVVGL 

Note 2. It must be observed generally, that the lingual letters 
$ t -9", r, and £, remain unchanged only before a liquid; for, besides 
the changes adduced above, and § 16. 3, it is to be regarded as a 
rule, that they change into or before T sounds, but are rejected 
before k; thus the Greeks form, e.g. eireiaSriv (for iirei$$rjv, 
from ireiSw) ; wiirEiica (for TrbrEiSicci, from 7rel$u)), &c» 



§ 18. 
CHANGE OF N. 



1. Before the labial letters, j3, ir, <p, \f,, p,, %? is 
changed into ^i ; e. g. f^jSaXXw (from ev), av^fxerpla, 

<yw^7rpa<T<n»), avfityepto (from (Tvv), ejmxpv^jb}. 

F 2 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. N is changed into y before y, k, -^,5, but is to 
be pronounced like v ; e. g\ hyyAaw, ey/caXew (from 

Ji>), Gvyyaipii), Gvyiaivio (from avv). 

3. If v concurs with a liquid, it is changed into 

the Same ; e. g. for GvvXoyito), zvpivo), GWp'nrTU), 
Write avWoyi'Cw, mfxzvW) Gvpplwroj. 

4. N is always rejected before I, and likewise 
before a in the derivation of forms in declension 
and conjugation, as well as in the formation of 
compounds, when a is also followed by a conso- 
nant ; e. g, evSai/LiOGi for tvZaifxovGi, a'uoGi for auovGi, 
GvZyyia for avv'Cvyia, GVGTV)fxa for GvvGrr]{xa, 

Note. 2, The preposition kv before a and '( remains through- 
out unchanged (evaeiio, ev^io^iai); and the preposition avv before 
a, which is followed by a vowel, changes v into a ; e. g. avaanla, 
avaaeiu (from avv). 

Note 3. In compounds the Epic dialect also retains v before o-, 
when dv. abbreviated for dvd s forms the composition ; e. g» av~ 
orot'c (for aVaarac), ava^eSeeiv (for avaayeShiv). 



\ 19. 

TRANSPOSITION AND REDUPLICATION OF 
CONSONANTS. 

1. The transposition of the consonants of a 
word consists in placing a liquid, which was sepa- 
rated by a vowel from a preceding or following 
mute, immediately next the mute. In the general 
language, examples of this transposition are found 
chiefly in the formation of single words only ; e. g* 
?&vr\Ka (from %av, transp. Sva), £7roa%p (from the 



CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 69 

root 7TEp£, transp. TrptS, and by change of sound 
7rpa$). For the sake of verse, however, more fre- 
quent use is made of it in the Epic dialects and 
with the poets; e. g. KpaSlr] for Kap$ia (heart), 

arapiroQ for arpairoc (a footpath), fiaaSiGTOq for j3pa- 

Slgtos (superl. of j3pa§uc, slow) ; yet even here the 
usage is not arbitrary, but confined to certain 
cases, the knowledge of which must be obtained 
by observation. 

2. The reduplication of consonants for sharpen- 
ing a syllable is mostly confined to the semi- 
vowels X, /u, v, p, a, and owes its frequent applica- 
tion principally to. the Epic dialect. In the ge- 
neral language must be observed the reduplication 
of p at the beginning of roots, when it is preceded 
by a short vowel, in the annexation of the aug- 
ment, and in the formation of compounds ; e. g. 
IppiTTTov (imperf. of ptVrw, I throw), airoppnToq (for- 
bidden, from euro and p«), &c. The following 
cases are chiefly to be remarked out of the Epic 
dialect : 

(a) the reduplication of a is the most frequent, 
occurring (a) in the termination at of nouns, and in 
the terminations of futures and aorists beginning 
with a- ; e.g. peXkam (Alt. jStAeo-i, from /3fXoc 5 an 
arrow), ira'&taat (Att. iraiGL, from Trace, a child), K€- 

£>ct(T<T£t', /CEpaa-craro (from &£paw, I mingle), krtXecrGa 

(from reXlw, I finish) ; (|3) in compounds where a 
short vowel precedes o- ; e. g. iva^Xfxog (well-oared, 
from azkfxa and £w)— (-y) in the annexation of the 
augment, e. g. iaaeva and ioavpai (from ^vw, I 
drive) — (£) in the middle of the root ; e.g. iWojuaa 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

for icrouai (I shall be), toggov, oggov, for togov, ogov 

(so much, how much), on-iWii for ottiVio (back). 

(b) the reduplication of X, after the annexation 
of the augment and in compounds, is more rare ; 
e, g. tXXafe for f Act/Be (he took), veoWovtoq (new- 
washed, from v€oc and Xouw). 

(c) p is chiefly doubled in compounds with a 
privative and !u (for *5), but seldom after the an- 
nexation of the augment ; e. g. ajujuopoc (ill-fated, 
from /Aopoo), ev/ufAzXiag (skilled in the lance, from 
iteXm), ifipaSov (1 learnt, from ixav^avw, root fJia%). 

(d) v is doubled rarely, and in compounds 
alone ; e, g\ iwtwe (declared, from eVw and ev). 

Note. The reason of the frequent reduplication of liquids is 
grounded on the sharp sound of these letters, and originally, as 
appears from ancient inscriptions, their reduplication existed only 
in oral discourse, but was not designated in writing. 

3. The Epic dialect in some words doubles also 
the mutes w and r ; e. g. ottttoteooc, own-wc, ottttqScv, 

for OTTorspor, oirwq, &C. \ SO orri, orreo, for on, &C. 



§ 20. 
CHANGE OF VOWELS. 

I. When several forms are derived from one 
root, the principal vowel is often changed into 
another sound, without admitting of a definite 
reason being assigned, or a fixed rule laid down ; 



CHANGE OF VOWELS. 71 

C g. tteoScd, eirpa&ov, irkiropSa. So also Tpecjxi), krpci^v, 

rpofoQ, all from one root. 

2. More regular and easy to be defined are 
those changes of the vowels which appear in the 
different dialects, and of which the following are 
principally to be remarked : 

(1) instead of the short vowels e and o, the Ionic 
dialect frequently uses the long sounds « and ov, 
yet only before semivowels, namely, a for s only 
before v and p, but ov for o before A, v, p, and a. 

Examples. Att. dial. %>Lvoq, evEKa, fpwraw, vogoq, 
fiovoq, ' OXvfxiTog, Kopog. 
Ion. dial, £avoe, uveica, apa>raa>j vovaoq } 
fxovvog, Ov\vp,Trog , tcovpoq. 

Note 1. This change is limited in the Ionic dialect to but a 
small number of words besides those adduced. It occurs more 
frequently in the Epic dialect, where not only forms like elv and 
V7retp (for kv and virip) appear, but the change of e into el is al- 
lowed also before a vowel in almost all cases where the measure 
of the verse requires it ; e. g, elapivog for laptvog, eiojq for euig, 

UTTSlOQ for <X7T£0£, ^pVITElOC for ^pUO-eO^. 

Note 2o On the contrary, the reverse case frequently occurs, 
where, namely, in the Ionic dialect, el is changed into e, both be- 
fore vowels and semivowels, and chiefly in proparoxytone adjec- 
tives in eloq, eta, elop, in properispomes in eta, and before a posi- 
tion ; e< g. x e P°s and \Epi (from x a P> a hand), ettit^Seoq and 
teXeoq for ETnrrjhiog and teXeioq, r/tJia for i]$E~ia (fern, of fjdvg, plea- 
sant), JcpeWwv, fjii^wv, and a.TrooE'la.crS'ai, for vLpdaa^v, fiEi^ioi', 
dTtolEi'iarx^ai. In the terminations Eiog, eta, etov, e is frequent- 
ly changed into 77, so that they become rjiog, r/Va, rjiov ; e. g. 
ci\rj^r]irj for a\//Seta, %a\KTj'iov for ^a'X/cetoi/, &C 

(2) In the word Sav^a (wonder) and its deriva- 
tives, as also in reflexive pronouns, the Ionic 
dialect frequently uses wu instead of the diph- 
thong av ; e. g. Swufia&o for %av[ia'C<a (I wonder). 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

iwurou, orewurov, for kavrov and crsaurou (of himself 

and thyself). 

(3) For a long, the lonians generally use r?, the 
Dorians always a, and the Attics interchangeably 

a and n : 



Don dial. 


Att. dial. 


Ion. dial 


a/itfpa, 


i]juepa 9 


TjfltpT}. 


(papa, 


(jiyfxri, 


(priori. 


Kvvayos, 


Kvvrjyoc, 


Kvvrjyoc* 


-topics , 


(TO(f>L<i, 


iJO^U], 




larpug, 


n/Tpoe* 




%Mpa% 9 


%wprf£. 




w oay [.let 2 


7roy]yp.ci. 



Note 3. Although tills peculiarity of dialect obtains almost 
invariably, yet there are also cases in which the lonians retain 
long a, and the Dorians >?, unchanged ; e. g. vdfxa (a fluid), /xaX- 
Xov (more), as Ionic, and $i)p (a beast), TrtiXog (clay), firj (not), as 
Doric forms. Generally, 7? remains unchanged with the Dorians 
when it is produced by the lengthening of e ; e. g. Troo/ow (from 
rroiibf, I make), Xi/xi/v (a harbour, gen. Xifiivog}. 

(4) Instead of ov, when it is formed by contrac- 
tion from to, the lonians use cu ; e. g. for avkyov, 

TTOlOl^UEVOe, I 1011. CCV£V£U, TTOlZVjiltVOC;. 

(5) The Doric dialect has frequently w for ov, 
and, if an <x follows, 01 ; e. g. for ounavoc (heaven), 
?ouXo? (a slave), Movaa (Muse), rvirrovaa (striking); 

Dor. o>oavo£, SwXoc, Motcra, rvirroiaa. 

(6) Iii the Ionic and Attic dialects, the vowels 
g and a frequently interchange with each other ; 
so that the lonians take a where the Attics have 
£, and reversely ; e. g. Att. rtpw (I cut), fdye%c 
(greatness) ; Ion. ra fxvuy^dy a%g: on the contrary. 



CONTRACTION. 73 

Att. (3apa%pov (ail abyss), riaGapa (four), vaXog 
(glass) ; Ion. ptptZpov, reaaepa, veXoq. 

(7) When a or y precedes o, the Ionians, and in 
declensional terminations the Attics also, change 
o into (i), and a or y into e; e. g. -^pao^ai (I use), 
opao) (I see) ; Ion. yjoiw^ai, opiio ; besides \a6q (a 
people), vaoc, or, Ion. vnog (of a ship), iXaoq (propi- 

tlOlls) ; Att. Acwc, vcwe, i'Afaic. 



§ 21. 
CONTRACTION, 

1. The principal and most important changes 
which take place with Greek vowels are super- 
induced by the concurrence of several of them 
with each other ; for two or more colliding 
vowels, whereof each is to be heard singly, occa- 
sion harshness and dissonance of pronunciation. 
Hence, in the formation of words, the Greeks 
were solicitous to avoid the accumulation of 
vowels. 

2. The most usual means made use of for this 
purpose is the contraction of two or more vowels 
into one long vowel or diphthong — ((jwaipwig) . 

3. The short vowels, however, are not always 
changed into the kindred long vowel ; but here a 
law of language obtains, which may be compre- 
hended under the following rules : 

(a) Two vowels which together form a diph- 



74 ETYMOLOGY, 

thong are changed into this in contraction. Thus 
we contract 

a "into u ; e.g. avSei — ■ avSee. 

01 - — 01 ; — vx ot °~~ ^X ** 

So also with the improper diphthongs : 

ai into a ; e. g. KEpai — tcepa. 

i\i — • y ; — Oprjiaaa « — Opyaaa. 
uyi - — tp ; — Xw'Ctjv — \w(t)V. 

(b) Two vowels which do not form a diphthong 
are changed into a kindred long sound, 
za becomes n ; e, g. Ttlyta — rei^iy. 



££ - — > 


£1 j • 


<j)l\t£ — 


- <j>i\ei. 


«to, aw, and aov 
oa and o?i 


S - 

I 

a 


Siairaofiai • — 

TrXctpaou — ■ 
atcoa ■ — 


■ ^tarwfjLai. 
TrXavw. 




c _ 


Op§6r)T£ — — 


obSwre. 


oo") ttXooc J 


— — TfXoVC, OD^OOfXcV ' 


— opdovyusv. 


OE >OU 7fXo£ ; 


— - ttXou 


? OO^OE 


OQZlOV. 


£0 J avzzoq ? 


— — aV^OUf;,, TTOUOjulEVOg' 


— iroiovfizvog 



Note 1. The lonians, when they adopt contraction, unite eo 
and eov generally, and sometimes also go and oe into £u ; e. g. 
woiei)f.LEvo£ and 7roiev for 7roiou — edacaUv for educaiov, formed from 
idiKciioe. 

Note 2. The Dorians frequently contract ao and aw into a> 
particularly in the casal terminations of the first and third de- 
clensions, as will be shewn in the proper place. 

(c) a, c, v, when they are short, absorb a suc- 
ceeding short vowel, and then become long. 
ct£ becomes d ; 

a —r- i ; 

v& <k. va — v ; 



€. g. atK(i)V - 


— aKh)v. 


ayawaz — 

— —■ TToXtl — 


— ayarra. 

— TToXl. 


— tySlvzQ - 


— ivSur. 


i^vaq - 


- Jx^c. 



CONTRACTION. 75 

(d) A short vowel next a long sound is often 
omitted without change. This is chiefly the case 
with £, which is absorbed by almost every long 
sound preceding or succeeding it, while a and © 
unite only with a kindred sound ; e, g. 

£ in (plX&Vt} (pl\id } \)\l]£GGa vXrjGGO.} 7TOl£Ol> 7TOIOV. 

a — ■ ayaTrats) — ayaTrw, \aa<Q — Aac„ 

O opZOlt> OpZld, opZQOVGl — -OpZOVGt, Tt\oOI — -TtXoU 

(e) A vowel before a diphthong compounded 
with i is contracted in the usual manner with the 
first vowel of the diphthong ; and, if the nature of 
the contraction admits (s. § 6. 3.), the c is sub- 
scribed ; e» g. 

sat and ££ai become ??, e. g, Tpirrsai — ruTrrr?, £7riSufil- 

£Ol — kTr&vfjiy. 
au and ay become a, e. g. ayawaei — ayaira 9 ayaway 

— ay aira-y aeid(x) — aica). 
aot becomes w, e, g. aoiSri-— yS»j, ayairaoijai — aya- 

Trwfii ; on the contrary, o« becomes ov or of, 

6. g, opdoav — op^ovv? oo^oec — oo^of. 

Note 3. In general it may be assumed, that, with certain limi- 
tations, which will be defined in declension and conjugation, the 
Attics apply the rules of contraction here adduced in almost all 
instances of the concurrence of the specified vowels. On the con- 
trary, contraction is more rare in the Epic dialect, as will also be 
more particularly shown in declension and conjugation ; but its 
chief uncertainty and fluctuation is in the Ionic, which, on the 
one hand, divides into two vowels such long sounds as never ap- 
pear resolved with the Attics, and admits even of the collision of 
three vowels, each to be independent in the pronunciation ; while, 
on the other, it also adopts contraction in words where the gene- 
ral language never allowed it ; as, e. g. ttXevveq for ttXeoveq, ejitaaa 
for efioTjaa, ervevdica for epvevorjita, &c. Examples of the sepa- 
ration of sounds, which always appear joined in the Attic, are 
oiofiaif 7rcu'c, fiaXeeiv, IvirXoKafiog, for owfxai (I suppose), rral'g (a 
child), fiaXtiv (to throw), ivirkoKOLfxoQ (fair-tressed). 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 4. The accent must frequently be changed in contrac- 
tion, but always according to the rules given in § 1 1. For greater 
facility, the following must be attended to : (a) if neither of the 
two syllables to be contracted lias the accent, the contraction does 
not receive it ; e. g. ao^rj — w'cj/, k(bi\eov- — k^'Ckovv : (b) but, if one 
of them has the accent, it then remains on the contraction, and 
undergoes the usual changes, as is clear from the above exam- 
ples; e. g. tt\6oq — 7t\ovq, Biairuo>jat — ciaira>f.iai, ^dilior — Xwwv. If 
the blended sound formed by contraction falls into the final syl- 
lable of the word, it takes the circumflex when the first, but the 
acute when the last, of the contracted syllables was accented ; 
e. g. TLfxdei — rifici, karawQ — tarojc. 



§ 22, 

CEASIS.— SYNEZESIS— ELISION, APHAERESIS, AND 
APPENDED v. 

Two vowels^ also, which stand one at the end 
and the other at the beginning of two successive 
words, occasion difficulty and dissonance in pro- 
nunciation (hiatus). To avoid this, the Greeks 
make use of the following means : 

1. Crasis {k^clgiq), the union of two such vowels 
into one blended sound. Herein the assigned 
rules of contraction (§21.) are generally observed. 
Thus we unite 

(a) a a, at a, a e, and at e, into a ; C.g. rafta, Ta\\a } 
Kav, rav^iKa, ayu), Kayu), kclku,, Kara, for ra kfxa^Ta aXX« ? 
Kai av, ra EvScjca, a syto, Kal sku, Kal dra. 

(b) o £, o o, and ot c, into ou ; e. g. TovvavTiov> tovvq- 
fMiy ovfiGi, for to Evavriov, To ovojia, ol ejuoL 

(c) o t into ot ; e. g. %^« rtov ^ or ™ Ipanov (comp, 
§ 15. NoteS). 



CRASIS.-SYNEZESIS, &c. 77 

(d) a) 01 into 10 ; £. g. eyio/J.ai 9 tyioda, for £-yw oifiai, 
syu) oica. 

Note 1. If a crasis occurs with the article, the vowel of the 
genitive, dative, and accusative forms is dropped, and when a 
follows, even 6 and ol disappear ; e.g. rdvdpog, TcivBpi, ravrd, 
ravrov, dvfip, for rov dpcpog, rw dvcipi, ret avrd, rov avrov, 6 dvijp ; 
on the contrary, ovpog, obfiol, fyu?/, for 6 k^iog, ol e/jloi, y Efir]. In 
the Ionic dialect, however, o and oi of the article are united with 
a succeeding a into w ; e. g. dtvyp, wvSpwKoi, r<jj\r]&ig> for 6 aVr;p, 
en aV<9"pw7rot, ro d\r}$£e. 

Note 2. When crasis is formed with the particle ical before el, 
elg, and ovk, and before words beginning with ev, at entirely va- 
nishes ; e. g. kovk, icel, Kecg, KEvcaifiwVi for kcCi ovtc, kcu £t, teat etc;, 
/ecu evdat/Jiuv. In other cases, where at forms a blended sound with 
the succeeding vowel, k is changed into x? if the initial vowel of 
the succeeding word had the rough breathing (§ 15. Note 8.); 
e. g. x^s X^ aa i f° r KaL °> f:a ^ ^ c^a • 

Note 3. The remarkable forms drepog, Sclrepov, Sdrepov, Xrepoi, 
for 6 erepog, rov eripov, ol erepot, appear as regular cases of crasis, 
from the observation that, besides erepog, the form drepog existed 
also in the ancient language. 

Note 4. Over the blended sound formed by crasis, a sign is 
placed which resembles the smooth breathing, and is denominated 
coronis, (Kopwvig). When it coincides with the breathing, it must 
be omitted. 

2. Synezesis (ovvlZnaiQ), the union in pronuncia- 
tion of two vowels written separate. It is, pro- 
perly, nothing more than a crasis not designated 
in writing, but left to the will of the reader, and 
occurs with the Attics in the combination only of 
certain words, particularly in fn) oh, rj oh, £7r£t oh, 
£-yu> ou, and firj uBivai. In the Epic dialect, how- 
ever, it is very frequent, not only in the combina- 
tion of two words, whereof one begins and the 
other ends with a long vowel, but also in the middle 
of words, particularly with £ before a long vowel ; 

e. g. nrj|Ai7tajcW '&yi\y)OQ, Hom. II. I. 1. ypverko a\va 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

vKyWrpu), II. I. 15 ; but also with e before shorts ; 

e, g, a<ppeov\$£ or?) idea, pai\vovTO SflvfpSe /eov/p, II. XI. 

282, (where consequently there is a double syni- 
zesis, namely, in dtppeov and in arrfita, which, on 
account of the metre, must be pronounced a$pow 
or atypzw, and arrfiri). 

3. Elision (3Xty*g), the rejection of a short vowel 
at the end of a word, when the next following be- 
gins with a vowel. To designate this* use is made 
of the apostrophe ( ' ). 

Elision is employed much more rarely in prose 
than in poetry, and occurs chiefly in the follow- 
ing cases : 

(a) in prepositions beginning with a, i, and o, 
although seldom in IWa, and never in mpl and 

wpo ; e* g« Kar hpi 9 IV skhvov, dip' kavrov, for Kara cjul, 
sm ticuvov, airo eavrove 

(b) in the particles d\\a, apa, and apa, ura, iva 9 

fiaXa, ye, rk 3 81, and the compound particles formed 
from it, as ovSe,fitiU ; also in ttote and its compounds, 
as ovttotej firj7TOTB 9 and the like ; lastly, in in, ovketi, 

fiYjKBTi ; e. g, d\\ tytOj ap ovv f ur' kptJTaq, \v t?i>, fiaX 
av, y ou§ev, for ctAAa eyu), apa ovv, aha £p(*)Tac; 9 \va t)V f 
fiaXa kv 9 y\ ou$ev. 

(c) in the pronoun forms tovto, ravra, Tiva, £fxe, <re, 

worzpa, and iii all to which Be is appended, as oSe, 
rocrodSe, and the like ; e* g, rovr a'AAo, ravr r'i§Y)j for 

tovto a\Xo f ravra tj&jj. 

(d) in earl, $r)£ii, olSa, o!(7^a, and other familiar 
expressions of frequent occurrence in common 

life ; e. g, eov3 ottou, (prjjuL !yw, oiS' oti, oicS apa, for 
'sort O7rov f <j>Y)fM kyhs, oiSa on, oio3a apa* 

(e) in the plural termination a of neuters, the 



CRASIS.— SYNEZESXS, &c. 79 

verbal terminations e and o, and with the poets 
generally in all terminations with a short vowel ; 

€. g, tcaic zpya, ykvoir hv, for Kaica eoya, jzvoito av. 

Note 5, The elision of at of the verbal terminations fiat, cat, 
rat, is more rare even with the poets ; e. g. tpx ^' ^X <av f° r 

Note 6. The poets very frequently elide the accusative ter- 
mination a of the third declension, but not the dative t, except 
in some few cases where confusion with the accusative is ob- 
viated by the context 

Note 7. jiot and aoi are elided by the poets extremely rarely, 
and only in cases where they cannot possibly be confounded 
with we and ak ; e, g, eltt aye fi, w ttoXvcuv 'Odvcrev, Horn. II. 
IX. 673. 

Note 8. On the accent in elision the following rule obtains : 
if the rejected syllable was accented, the accent disappears along 
with it in prepositions and particles, but in other words it 
passes, always as an acute, to the preceding syllable ; e. g. aV 
ifxov (from dno) ; on the contrary ttoXX ewoy>7<ra, (from 7roXXa) f 
Zeiv etXtiq (from deiva). 

4. Aphaeresis (<z<|>aip£(nc), the rejection of a short 
vowel at the beginning of a word, when the pre- 
ceding word ends with a long sound. Under this 
are classed cases like ttov 'cmv (for irov iariv), 

c5 'vati (for w ava'C), firj \ (for firj £/c), firj 'yaSog (for firj 

aya%6q), and the like, which, however, can all be 
read and written as belonging to crasis and 
synizesis. Hence it appears unnecessary to se- 
parate them in this manner from the similar cases 
already adduced. 

5. Appended v Q(j>b\kv(jtik6v). This is affixed 
to the third person of the verb, ending in £ or t, 
and to the dative plur. in m 9 when they are fol- 
lowed by a word which begins with a vowel ; e.g. 

Irvipsv lui (for etu^s), alvovcnv uvtqv (for aivovtri), iraaiv 

2 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

UTrtv zkuvoq (for 7ra<ri H7T£). Also to a/cocri (twenty), 

wspvai (in the preceding year), voacjn (apart), ick 
(perhaps), vv (now), to the appended syllable $i, 
and to adverbs of place formed with the termina- 
tion gi ; e. g> 'OXv/uLTTLamv (at Olympia). 

Note 9. The circumstance of v being affixed to the assigned 
forms of words, also at the end of prepositions, and, among 
the poets, even before consonants in the middle of discourse, 
while others again with the same terminations (namely e and t) 
can never receive it, appears to prove that the v e(J)e\kv(ttik6v was 
not an accidental appendage, but the original full-sounding form 
of the word, which, to avoid harshness, was gradually softened 
before a succeeding consonant by the rejection of v. The Ionic 
dialect, which delights in the accumulation of vowels, generally 
neglects the v J^eXn/ort/cov, even when a vowel follows. 

Note 10. As a more moveable appendage in use only before 
vowels, must be considered the final q in the words ovrtog (so), 
a^ptc, and ^xpie ( unt il), which before consonants become ovru), 
o-X9 L -> an( l H-^XP lt With the Ionians this is also the case in the 
termination of numeral adverbs, ukiq^ which before consonants 
is frequently written a/a. 



DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 81 

CHAPTER IV. 

Development and Illustration of the Parts of Speech, 



§23. 

GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE DIFFERENT 
KINDS OF WORDS. 

1. Tme end of language (according to § 1. 2.) is 
the expression of human ideas or thoughts. Now 
every idea has for its foundation an object, to 
which the attention is directed, and a relation or 
condition, in which the object is conceived to 
exist. Words, which are used for the designa- 
tion of an object, are called nouns (ovo^ara, no- 
mina, names) ; but those, which express a relation 
or condition of the object, verbs (py^iara, verba,) 
declarations. 

2. Relations and conditions are either assigned 
generally and without nearer definition, or ac- 
companied with nearer definitions and more par- 
ticular references to other things. Words, which 
assign the nearer definitions and particular re- 
ferences of general relations, are termed particles 
(juopia, particulae). 

3. Thus we deduce three principal classes of 
words ; nouns, verbs and particles. 



82 ETYMOLOGY 



§24. 



THE NOUN, AND THE KINDS OF WORDS CON- 
NECTED THEREWITH. 

1. A noun contains either the name of an ex- 
isting independent object, and is called a noun 
substantive (ovofia ovgiclgtikov, nomen substanti- 
vum), or the name of a property, found in an 
object, and is called a noun adjective (ovofjia 
57rt^rov, nomen adjectivum). 

Note. Substantives are again resolved, according to the idea 
they convey, into different classes. Thus a substantive serves 
either to denote (a) an individual object only, as, Greece, Rome, 
the Danube, Cyrus, — a noun substantive proper, (proper name) ; 
or (b) a whole species of objects, as, man, bird, beast, fish, — a 
noun substantive common or appellative ; or (c) a mere idea, 
wherein something is conceived as an object, which properly is 
not possessed of real existence, as, beauty, form, life, goodness, 
— a noun substantive derivate. 

2. An adjective indicates a property simply as 
a property ; but, if the word denoting property is 
also to assign the time when this exists in the 
object, use is then made of the participle (pvopa 
ju£to"£ik6v, participium) ; thus, loving, beloved, suf- 
fering, suffered. 

3. When several actions or relations are pre- 
dicated of one object, in every new predication it 
would be necessary to repeat the name of this 
object, and hence tautology, prolixity, and even 
indistinctness of speech, would be unavoidable. 
To obviate this fault, language adopts the use of 
pronouns (pronomina), which are applied as the 



DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 83 

representatives of substantives ; thus, instead of 
saying, — Caius went to the wars ; Caius was 
wounded ; a sickness then befel Caius ; the sick- 
ness deprived Caius of the strength of Caius, and 
Caius returned afflicted to the home of Caius — - 
by the employment of pronouns, we say ; — Caius 
went to the wars ; he was wounded ; a sickness 
then befel him, which deprived him of his 
strength, and he returned afflicted to his home. 



§25. 
VERB. 



A verb serves either simply to denote that, a 
property exists in an object (verbum substan- 
tivum, verb substantive) ; e\ g. the tree is green, 
the fruit becomes ripe, the animal ivas alive;— or, 
it at the same time aiso includes the property ; 
e. g. the fruit ripens, the animal lived, Caius 
strikes. 



ADVERB. 



The property, which is designated generally in 
an adjective or verb, can in various ways be 
more nearly denned and represented as parti- 
cular. This nearer definition of a property is 

c; 2 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

given by the adverb ' (empprifia) ; e. g: the tree is 
very high, the bird sings beautifully, the loudly 
roaring lion, the quick destroying arrow. 



§ 27. 
PARTICLES. 



All words, whose use serves to define the 
relation of single words and of whole proposi- 
tions to each other, or to impart connexion, 
power, and life to discourse, are comprehended 
under the general appellation of particles (jiopia). 
We here enumerate two kinds of them. 

LA preposition (wpoSemg), which indicates 
that one object is dependent upon another, and 
defines the manner of that dependence ; e. g. I 
go a walking with my father ; I am by thee, stand 
near thee, depart/Wwz thee ; the tree stands on the 
hill, beside the fountain, before the house. 

2. A conjunction (dwcWjuoc), which connects 
propositions together, and assigns the relation 
existing between them ; e. g\ for — thy mother 
was with me, thy father was with me, — we say 
■ — thy mother and thy father were with me; — 
for — the man wishes to become clever, the man 
wishes to become useful, he must learn some- 
thing, — we say — if the man- wishes to become 
clever and useful, he must learn something. 



DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 85 

§28. 
INTERJECTION. 

Interjections are sounds uttered under the in- 
fluence of violent feelings,, (grief, joy, surprise, 
terror, &c.) to indicate the existence of those 
feelings within us. Hence they are not to be 
considered as single words, but as complete ex- 
pressions of the language of feeling ; e. g* alas ! 
ah ! oh ! fy ! woe ! heavens ! 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER V, 
The Noun according to all its Paris. 

A. SUBSTANTIVE. 

§ 29. 

GENDER. 

1. All languages observe in the appellations of 
objects a certain division, with respect to sex or 
gender. Thus many objects belong by nature 
either to the masculine (masculinum) or the fe- 
minine gender (femininum). This has been trans- 
ferred to other things wherein no natural sex is 
apparent, and hence nouns are classed according 
to these two genders. But objects which can- 
not conveniently rank under either of the two 
are said to be generis neutrius, of the neuter or 
neither gender, 

2. To which of these three divisions a noun 
belongs is known 

(1) By the signification of the word ; whereon 
the following rules obtain : 

(a) the names of men, and of all creatures 
which are male by nature, are of the masculine 
gender ; e. g. Sw^ariic, 'Epjurjc, avhp (a man), "ipwg 
(a hero), w^o^rnq (a prophet), aXtKrwp (a cock). 

Note 1. The names of months and of most rivers are pro- 
perly adjectives, and therefore of the masculine gender, because 
6 p\v (a month), and 6 ttotouoc (a river) 5 are to be understood, 



GENDER. 87 

(b) the names of women, and of all creatures 
which are female by nature, are feminine ; e. g\ 

'AairaGia, 'AtypoSiTr), yvvrj (a Woman), pyTrip (a 

mother), %yarr?p (a daughter), 'oXzictoqiq (a hen). 

Note 2. The names of countries, islands, towns, and trees, are 
for the most part of the feminine gender. 

(c) the names of letters, infinitives and all words 
considered in respect to their letters and not to 
their signification, are neuter ; to a\<pa t to SeA™, 

to SsXecv (volition), to ovk> to yvvn (the word yvvi)). 

(d) appellatives of persons, which are used of 
males as well as females, must also be of both 
genders, or of the common gender (generis com- 
munis) ; e. g. o, 7i, %£oq (a God, Goddess) ; 6, n, 
iraiQ (a boy, girl) ; o, 17, <j>v\a£ (a watch). 

Note 3. The same obtains also of the names of animals, when 
one appellation serves for both sexes ; e. g. 6, »/, (dovq (a bull, 
cow) ; 6, ?/, dpKTOQ (a bear, she-bear). Frequently, however, the 
appellation used for both male and female has only one definite 
gender, either masculine or feminine. This is called epicene, 
genus epicoenum (iniKoivov), and the natural sex is indicated by 
the addition of the adjectives dpprjp (male), and SijXvg (female) ; 
e. g. h\(plp 6 SrjXvQ (the female dolphin), Xayiog 6 SijXvg (the fe- 
male hare), a\w7rr?£ rj dpprjv (the male of the fox), ^eXt^wj/ rj 
dpprjv (the male of the swallow). But, when the names of 
animals represent the mere idea of species without any regard to 
distinction of sex, one definite gender only is always used, even of 
those which are common ; e. g. *? a'\w7r??£ (a fox), eu Ka'//?7\oi 
(camels), at apxroi (bears), 6 kvwv (a dog), but // kvcov (a bitch or 
a trained dog). 

(2) Generally the gender is known by the 
termination of the word, as taught in the de- 
clensions. 



88 ETYMOLOGY, 

4 30. 
DECLENSION, 

1. A noun indicates an object as an idea by 
itself, without further reference and connexion with 
others; but, if this enter into a relation with other 
objects, the noun must assume a form by which 
such relation is expressed. This is done by 
varying the final syllable of the word, and this 
variation we term declension* 

2. The Greeks varied a word in a fourfold 
manner, and hence arose four cases : genitive, 
dative, accusative, vocative ; at the top of which it 
is usual to place the nominative, although properly 
this is not a case, but merely the original form of 
the word. They have, therefore, one case fewer 
than the Latins, namely, the ablative. 

3. The declension of a word defines also 
whether only one, or two, or several objects are 
to be indicated by it, and this is called number. 
It is the singular number when the discourse is of 
only one, the dual when of two, and the plural 
when of several objects. The Greeks have, there- 
fore, one number more than the Latins, namely, 
the dual, which, however, is incomplete, possess- 
ing only two forms, whereof one obtains for the 
nominative, accusative, and vocative, and the other 
for the genitive and dative. 

4. As nouns have not of themselves the same 
termination, the necessary changes therefore 3 



DECLENSION OF THE ARTICLE. S3 

cannot be effected in them according to the same 
form. Hence arise different declensions, which 
in Greek are three. 



§ 31. 
DECLENSION OF THE ARTICLE. 

As the Greek article occurs so frequently in 
connexion with substantives, we place its de- 
clension here before that of the latter, although, 
according to its own nature, it belongs to the 
class of pronouns, and is therefore to be treated 
of subsequently. 

Singular. 

Nom. o, t/, to, the. 
Gen. tov, rf)c, tov, of the. 
Dat. rw, rrj, Tu>, to the. 
Ace. t6v, ti\v, to, the. 

Dual. 

Nom. and Ace. ™, tu, tw, the two, 

Gen. and Dat. toIv, toiv, rolv, of or to the two. 

Plural. 

Nom. o\ s at, tcl, the. 
Gen. tiov, of the. 

Dat. roiq, Taig, roig, -to the* 
Acc. tov*;, Tag, to., the= 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 32. 
FIRST DECLENSION. 

1. The first declension has four terminations, of 
which « and r? are of the fern, and ag and rig of the 
masc. gender. 

Terminations. 
Singular. 



Norn. 




ag vc> 



Gen. ag vg v^^-v^*^ ov (ao, w, to>). 

Dat. a y 

Ace. av t)v av yv. 

VoC. a ij a JjOra* 



Dual. 

Nom.Ace.&Voc. «. 
Gen. and Dat. mv. 

Plural. 
Nom. ai. 

Gen, wv (awv, €0>v). 

Dat. aig (aiai, yen, yg). 

ACC. ag. 

VoC. at. 

2. The nominative termination a occurs only 
when preceded by a vowel, or p, & 3 v, S, S, or two 
consonants, or a double consonant If a vowel 



FIRST DECLENSION. 91 

precedes, then a in the termination is an « pure 
(7. e. it is pronounced by itself, without the mixture 
of another sound, since it forms a distinct sylla- 
ble), and remains in all the cases of the singular. 
The same takes place in the termination pa. But 
the rest retain a only in the accusative and voca- 
tive, the genitive and dative adopting »?. 

Note 1. This retention of a through all the cases of the sin- 
gular is observed also in some words which have d long in the 
nominative, although not terminating either in a pure or pa. 
Such are dXaXd (a battle-shout), vKarMXa (the catch of a 
trap), and some proper names, as 'Avdpojiida, Aion/xa, A^a, 
QiXo/miiXd. 

3. In the dual and plural all the four termina- 
tions coincide. 



Position of the Accent in Words of the first 
Declension. 

4. In placing the accent both in this and the 
following declension, two general rules are to be 
observed ; namely, 

(a) primitive words, formed with a simple ter- 
mination from a simple and unchanged root, have 
their accent on the radical syllable (according to 
§ 10. A. 2.); on the contrary, derivatives, which 
are formed from a root either by the addition of 
several letters, or by the change of the vowel, have 
the accent on the termination (according to $ 10. 
A. 3.) ; e. g. primitives, /3Aa/3-)7 (a hurt), S//c-?? (jus- 
tice), KOfx-r] (hair), viK-r) (victory), tv^-v (fortune) ; 
derivatives, ypa/i/4ij (a line, from ypa<p), (3o\fi (a 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

throw, from fiaX), ^ovt? (a stay, from pzv), aro\rt (a 
garment, from <jte\), (j>%pa (destruction, from $%>, 

(j)%up), ayopa (a market, from ayep, a yap), (j>opa (a 

load, from (j>ep). 

Note 2. As the major part of words terminating in rj consist 
of derivatives, their most usual accentuation is therefore on the 
final syllable. The same has been transferred to a great num- 
ber even of simple substantives of this termination ; e. g. ev^-y) 
(a wish), (jovX-r) (advice), ap^-V (rule), Qtovri (a voice). On 
the contrary, all substantives with the termination vvr\ are ac- 
cented on the penultimate ; e. g. evtypoavvq (mirth). 

(b) of derivative substantives terminating in 
ua and ia, those which signify a concrete (i. e. an 
object or a person) receive the accent on the ter- 
mination, but those which signify an abstract (i. e. 
an action, a state, or an idea) receive it on the 
penultimate or antepenultimate according to the 
nature of the final syllable ; e. g. concretes, napua 
(a cheek), koXui (a nest), arpana (an army) ; ab- 
stracts, (with a long final syllable, comp. § 8. First 
Sect. I. 1.), ayyeXla (a message), oofyla (wisdom), 
SovXaa (slavery) ; but with a short final syllable 
{comp. as above), akrfcua (truth), zvazfiua (piety). 

Exceptions : feminine appellatives in rpia, de- 
rived from masculines in r*?p and r^c, although 
they are concretes, have the accent on the ante- 
penultimate ; e. g. vfyavrpia (a female weaver), 
Troirirpia (a poetess). 

The remaining rules for the position of the 
accent must be given according to the several 
terminations. 

(1) Accent in the termination a, 

(a) substantives, having an a or v or a double 



FIRST DECLENSION. 93 

consonant or two consonants before the termi- 
nation a, are, when dissyllabic, accented on the 
penultimate, when polysyllabic on the antepenul- 
timate syllable ; e. g. cava (a share), a/mwa (a de- 
fence), pita (a root), afxa^a (a waggon), Stya (thirst), 
SaXa<7<ra (a sea), fiaGi\i<j<ra (a queen), a/miXka (a con- 
test). 

(j3) of substantives with the termination pa, 
those formed from verbal roots by changing the 
vowel (see above, a), and feminines with a con- 
crete idea, derived from masculines in oc, are ac- 
cented on the final syllable ; all the rest, on the 
contrary, are accented on the penultimate or an- 
tepenultimate, according to the nature of the 
final syllable ; e.g. <$opa (a skin, from Sc$, Sap), 
yapa (joy, from x al ?)> ^p i(Tr£ p a (the left, from apia- 
Tspog) ; on the contrary, avpa (air), Svpa (a door), 
apovpa (a field), yupa (a country), jxoipa (a share), 
njuspa (day), payaipa (a sword), teipa (a trial). 

(y) of substantives in which the a is preceded 
by a vowel, those in em and m have been already 
discussed under (b). For the rest the following 
rules obtain : 

Substantives with the termination aa and w, 
and polysyllables in aid, are paroxytone ; e.g. 
e\aa (an olive), TrrcXta (an elm), yaXrivala (a calm). 
On the contrary, all dissyllables in ma are pro- 
peris pome ; e. g. yala (earth), ypala (an old wo- 
man). 

Exceptions : ytvw (birth), and &a (a Goddess), 
are oxytone. 

Substantives in oa are usually paroxytone, but 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

those in oia oxytone; e. g, noa and irom (grass), 
X?° a an( i X? 01 ® (skin). 

Exceptions : oroa (a porch) is oxytoiib ; Tpola 
paroxytone ; and the compounds in /3oia, TrAoia, 
voia, and 7rXota, are proparoxytone. 

Substantives in va are paroxytone, dissyllables 
in via properispome, and polysyllables in via ge- 
nerally proparoxytone ; e. g. tcapva (a nut-tree), 
mKva (a gourd), fivla (a fly), aywa (a street). 

Exceptions : ayvia and opyum are in the Attic 
dialect oxytone, in Homer proparoxytone, and 
fii)T^via (a step-mother) is always oxytone. 

(2) Accent in the termination »?. See above (a) 
and Note 2. 

(3) Accent in the termination ag. Substantives 
of this termination are paroxytone, with the ex- 
ception of some proper names, which are oxytone ; 

6. g. rafilag (a Steward), Alveiag, &c. 

(4) Accent in the termination ng. 

(a) Substantives formed from a simple root 
with the mere termination rjg, besides derivatives 
from verbs with the terminations iruXriQ, perprjc, 
wvtiq, and rptj3*jc, and all those formed from proper 
names with the termination ^g (ISrjg, uStig, aSrjg), 
are paroxytone ; e. g. aSoXeaxyg ( a prattler), rm~ 
ripapyriQ (a ship-cap tain), m^ottwXijc (a dealer in 
ointment), ym^r^g (a land-surveyor), reX^wg (a 
farmer of customs), irai$0Tpl(5riQ (a wrestling-mas- 
ter), 'ArpeiStje, &c. 

(b) Substantives derived from verbs, with the 
termination t»?c, are chiefly oxytone ; e. g. ironn^g 
(a poet), f.ia%TYjg (a scholar). 



FIRST DECLENSION. 95 

„ Exceptions : (a) In many substantives so 
formed, the substantive idea appears so pure and 
independent, that they have been regarded as 
original substantives, and accordingly pronounced 
as paroxytone ; e. g. KXe-n-rvg (a thief), -n-XaaTm (a 
modeller), &c. (b) All substantives in t^q, not 
derived from verbs, are paroxytone ; e. g. to^ottiq 
(an archer, from ro£ov), 7roX/rr?c (a citizen, from 
ttoAcc), ItpyaTYiQ (a workman, from ipyov), &c. 

Changes of the Accent. 

5. The change of the accent in words of the 
first declension is determined by the following 
rules : 

(a) the gen. plur. has always a circumflex on 
the final syllable (comp. below, obs. 3. c). The 
genitives y^^arwv (from xpW*?c, an usurer), atyvuv 
(from a(j>vr) f anchovy), which are distinguished by 
their accent from the similarly sounding forms of 
the words xpriarog (useful), and a^c (misshapen), 
together with etw'kjjv (from ena-lai, trade-winds), 
make the only exceptions. 

(b) the ace. and voc. sing, besides the nom. 
and voc. plur. retain the accentuation of the nom. 
sing. From this the voc. ^crTrora, of (Worrjc, is 
alone excepted. 

(c) in the gen. and dat. plur. of all numbers 
(with the exceptions given under a) oxytones 
pass into perispomes, properispomes and pro- 
paroxytones into paroxytones, but paroxytones 
remain unchanged. 

(d) in the nom. and ace. dual, and in the ace. 
plur. oxytones and paroxytones retain their ac- 



96 



ETYMOLOGY. 



cent unchanged ; but properispomes and propar- 
oxytones pass into paroxytones. 



Note 3. The gen. plur. feminine 


of adjectives 


of three termi- 


nations 


is invariably formed like 


the masculine ; e. g. haibtv 


(from oo-tof; and data), &c. 












E 


xampl 
Sing. 


es. 






>h 


a market. 




7), a root. 


$, a Muse. 


Norn. 




ayopa 




pita 


M.ovaa 


Gen. 




ayopag 




ptlvQ 


Mou<x>k 


Dat. 




ayopa 




pity 


Moi/(Ti? 


Ace. 




ayopav 




plXjOLV 


Wlovaav 


Voc. 




ayopa 


Dual 


ptla 


MoDffa 


Nom. 


&Acc. 


ayopa 




pita 


Movaa 


Gen. 


& Dat. 


ayopaiv 


Plur. 


piCaiv 


Moi'ffatv 


Nom. 




■i t 

ayopai 




piL,ai 


Movaai 


Gen. 




ayoptov 




ptt,h)V 


Mou/rwv 


Dat. 




ayopaig 




piCaiq 


Moderate 


Ace. 




ayopag 




pi'Cag 


MoWac 


Voc. 




ayopai 


Sing. 


piCjai 


Moudat. 




>/, a voice. 6, a citizen. 


6, a youth. 


o, a prattler. 


Nom 


(p(i)Vlf 


ttoXitiiq 


vzaviag 


aSoXiayyg 


Gen. 


<ph)vriQ woXirov 


vzaviov 


aSoXsa^ov 


Dat. 


(JMDV7J 


TToXirrt 


vzavia 


aSoAtcrvj) 


Ace. 


<jtl*)Vl'lV WoXlTlfJV 


veaviav 


adoXeayr^v 


Voc. 


<j)lOV7J 


iroXira 


vmma 


a&oAffT^r;. 



Dual and plural as in the preceding. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 97 

OBSERVATIONS. 

(1) The termination m has usually a in the vo- 
cative, it being adopted in this case by all words 
in rrjg, and by all immediately derived from verbs 
with the mere annexation of the termination rjg, 
together with the names of nations ending in rjg ; 

€, g. ro^ora, Uspaa, &C. 

(2) Contraction, which occurs in but few words 
of this declension, presents no difficulty, as it is 
already admitted into the nominative, and con- 
tinues through all the cases. We have only to 
observe that words of this kind, which terminate 
in a, retain this a through all the cases of the 
singular, and that those in ag receive in the geni- 
tive the Doric termination a ; e. g. fiva (a mine), 
gen. /j,vciq 9 dat. pa — poppas (the north wind), gen. 
poppa, dat. poppa. Most of these contracted sub- 
stantives, however, come from £a, and conse- 
quently have in the nominative the termination 
rj, which is inflected regularly ; e. g. avicLa — gukti 
(a fig-tree), gen, avia\g 9 &c. 

(3) Concerning the dialects the following must 
be remarked : 

(a) The Epic and Ionic dialects use in the 
final syllable r? instead of the long a, excepting 

Sta (a Goddess), besides 'E^Emc, Alvetag, Avyeiag, 

and some other proper names ; e. g. ayopi'i, ayo^g, 
&c. There are some instances where even the 
short a undergoes this change, particularly in 
substantives in ua ; e. g. aX^uri, for aX^eia. The 
Dorians universally adopt the long a instead of i? ; 

€. g. (fxova, (ftwvag. 

H 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 

(b) In the Epic dialect masculines also of this 
declension, where euphony admits, are formed 
with the termination a ; e. g. ImroTa for linroTiiQ, 
v£(j)t\r)y^ETa for vecptXriyEpsryq, &c. The genitive 
termination of words in m and aq was originally 
ao, which has been preserved by the Epic writers, 
and occurs also with the Dorians in some in- 
stances unchanged, in others contracted into a. 
In Epic and Ionic this ao is contracted into w; 
and before the w, when a consonant precedes, an 
£ is inserted, which, however, does not affect the 
position of the accent, but forms a synizesis in 
the verse (see above, § 10. A. 4. and § 22. 2.) ; e. g. 
'ArpnSrig, gen. 'Arpa'Sao and 'ArpaSew (as a dis- 
syllable.) 

Note 4. Some words even in the common language have pre- 
served the Doric genitive in a, particularly proper names ; e. g. 
NovyuctC) gen. ~Novjjtd ; besides of this kind are to be remarked 
7rarpa\olag and fjLrjrpaXolaQ (a parricide, matricide), and vpvtSo- 
Si'lpae (a bird-catcher), gen. TrarpaXoia, &c. 

(c) The gen. plur. of all terminations was origi- 
nally aw, which the Epic writers have in many 
instances retained. The Dorians contract it into 
av, the Attics into wv, before which, when a con- 
sonant precedes, the lonians insert an e, and thus 
form the termination ewv. Hence it is evident 
why wv, as a termination of the gen. plur. in this 
declension, must always be marked with the cir- 
cumflex, 

(d) The dat. plur. aiq is confined to the Attic 
dialect, and to the later language. Homer uses 
this termination only in SWc and uktoic, together, 



SECOND DECLENSION. 99 

however, with the original termination awn, the 
lengthened ym, and the curtailed rjg. 

(e) As the remnant of an old declension, formed 
by the mere annexation of a definite syllable, we 
find in the Epic dialect the syllable <piv or <j>i, the 
annexation of which to the root formed the gen. 
and dat. of feminines in the first declension ; e. g. 
zvvr)$i or £vvr}(f>iv for tvvm, besides jSi'^i for fitr} 
(from j3/a), &c. 



§ 33. 
SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. The second declension has two terminations, 
og and ov. Words with the termination oc are for 
the most part masculine, but partly also femi- 
nine ; all in ov are neuter. 

Note. In the considerable number of feminine substantives in 
og, neither adequate general rules for determining the gender 
can be assigned, nor the individual words themselves completely 
enumerated. The following observations, however, may serve 
as an introduction to the accurate determination of the gender : 
(a) names of countries, islands, towns, and trees, are feminine, 
according to the general rule (§29. Note 2). As exceptions 
must be adduced 6 kpiveog (a wild fig-tree), 6 nipaaog (a cherry- 
tree), and a few others. On the contrary, it is to be remarked, 
that, together with the names of trees, the appellations also of 
many ^plants, and of the fruits and productions obtained from 
them, are feminine ; e. g. y fiufiXog (the papyrus), y (jtfiXog and 
y SeXrog (a book, made of that material), >/ fivaaog (linen), y 
ftdXavog (an acorn), y pdcbavog (radish), >/ pdj3cog and y <Hok6c (a 
rod and beam, taken from shrubs and trees), (b) Many kinds of 
earth and stone are feminine ; e. g. y dpyiXog (clay), y fiacravog (a 
touch-stone), y yv-^og (gypsum), y yXeurpog (amber), y irXlvSoQ 
(brick), y rirayog (lime), y vaXog (glass), y df.ijxog and -^dfXfioQ 
(sand),besides the names of many jewels, asvjudpaycog, <jd7V(p£tpoc, 

H 2 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

and % XlSog (a jewel) itself; also // ^y^og (a pebble), (c) Many 
appellations of things arched or hollowed are feminine. Among 
these must be classed words signifying a cupboard, chest, box, 
tub, trough, pitcher, and the like, as y Kiftiorog, xn^og, aopog, 
dfrdfXLv^oQy 7rvs\og } ra'pcWoe, Xyvog, XyicvSog, &c. besides the ap- 
pellations for a pit, road, street, as y rdtipog, ocog, KeXevSog, 
rpi/Sog, afia'tirvg, &c. (d) A considerable number of substantives 
of this kind are originally adjectives, and are used as feminines, 
because a feminine substantive is to be understood : hereto 
belong y dvvBpog (a desert), y-rreipog and Yeptrog (a continent), 
vrjffog (an island), Ttepiyupog (the circumjacent country), ail to be 
supplied by yy or x^P a » besides y SidXetcrog (a dialect), to be 
supplied by (ptovy ; y didfierpog (a diameter), by ypafjLjj.y ; y avyKXy- 
rog (a senate), by fiovXy, &c. In addition to these, however, 
many words are feminine, for which no reason can be assigned ; 
e. g. y yvdSog (a jaw-bone), y cpoaog (dew), y voaog (a disease), 
and others. 

Position of the Accent in Words of the Second 
Declension. 

2. In general the rule already laid down (§ 32. 
4.) applies also to this declension, but with the 
extension, that substantives formed from simple 
roots by merely changing the vowel and annexing 
the termination og are accented on the radical 
syllable, and not on the termination; e. g. tooVoc 
(a manner, from rpew), \6yog (a speech, from Asy), 
and the radical words tt6%q (a longing), vpvog (a 
hymn), ^6vog (time), &c. Those, on the con- 
trary, which are formed from verbal roots with 
the terminations fnog and roc, take the accent on 
the final syllable ; e. g. ^or^ioe (an oracular re- 
sponse), ayopcujfxog (a purchasing), craS/nog (a 

station), kwkvtoq (a howling), &c. Neuters are 
scarcely ever accented on the final syllable. 

Note 2. Among substantives with the termination fiog are 
majiy formed independently, and not derived from verbs, which 



SECOND DECLENSION. 101 

consequently have the accentuation of primitive words ; e. g. 
ttoXeiiqq (war), Koarfiog (ornament), KaXafioQ (straw), w/xoe 
(shoulder), &c. 

Exceptions : The following cases are to be ob- 
served as exceptions from the regular accentua- 
tion : 

(a) many words of a concrete signification, 
although they are radical words, take the accent 
on their final syllable ; e. g. a$t\<j>6g (a brother), 
$z6g (God), vaog (a temple), \a6g (a people), 
^(Dfioq (an altar), icpiog (a ram), vlog (a son), %fx6g 
(heart), aoifyioc (number), ocp^aXfiog (an eye), irora- 
fxog (a river), and others, whose proper accen- 
tuation must be learnt by practice and from 
lexicons. 

(b) words of similar sound, but of different 
import, were sought to be distinguished by the 
accent ; e. g. fiiog and (5i6g (life and a bow), S^ioc 
and St?juoc (a people and the omentum), v6/mog and 
vofiog (a law and a pasture), fiporog and (3p6rog, (a 
mortal and blood), and some others. 

(c) of the terminations of diminutives, those in 
idKog are always accented on the penultimate, 
those in apiov, tcW, uXXtov, and v$iov, on the 
antepenultimate ; of those in wv 3 on the con- 
trary, such as consist of three short or of more 
than three syllables are accented on the ante- 
penulimate, but trisyllables with a long initial 
syllable on the penultimate ; e. g. iraidiov and 
tzkviov (a little child) ; on the contrary, fiopiov 
(a particle). U&v (a plain), which, according to 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

this rule, should be proparoxytone, forms the only 
exception. 

Note 3. Respecting the single instances where trisyllabic and 
polysyllabic words are accented on the penultimate, as irapSevog 
(a virgin), wfjuplog (a bridegroom), no rule can be given, but 
they are left to individual observation. One class, however, of 
words so accented, are treated of below, (§ 48. A. 1 .) as originally 
belonging to adjectives. 

Changes of the Accent. 

3. The change of the accent in the inflexion 
of words of this declension is determined by the 
following rules : 

(a) paroxytones retain their accent unchanged 
through all the cases . 

(b) in the gen. and dat. of all numbers, oxy tones 
become perispome, but properispomes and pro- 
paroxy tones paroxytone ; e. g. fiwfxov, /Bw^w, j3w/uoty, 
(3i*)[liwv, j3o>juoi£ from f^Mfxog— -yjopov, %w£>w, &c. from 

^wooc, — avzpd)7ri)v 9 civSowttw, &C. from av3p(i)7T0Q. 





Terminations. 




Sing. 


Nom. 


OQ 


Gen. 


ou(E* 


Dat. 


10 

c 


Ace. 


ov 


Voc. 


g or og 




Dual. 


Norn. 


and Ace. w 


Gen and Dat. oiv (Ei 



ov 



Oil 









SECOND 


DECLENSION. 


10 








Plur. 






Norn. 




01 a 






Gen. 




d)V 






Dat. 




oig (oiai) 






Ace. 


OVQ 


(Dor. (*)g) a 






Voc. 


Ol 


a 








Examples. 










Sing. 






o, a speech. fj, 


an island. ?/, a road. 


70, a garment 


N. 


Xoyog 


vrjeroc 


o§6g 


ijucltiov 


G. 


\oyov 


vr\GOv 


oSou 


1/j.arlov 


D. 


X6yu> 


vr\aii) 


6ow 


i/mariio 


A. 


\oyov 


VT](JOV 


oSov 


IfXCLTlOV 


V. 


XoyeSiXoyog 


vrideSc 


VYjGOg 0§£ & oooc 

Dual. 


ifianov 


N.A.&V.Xo 7 « 


vyigoj 


oSw 


IfACLTHi} 


G. 


& D. Xoyoiv 


vriaoiv 


odoiv 

Plur. 


ijuanoiv 


N. 


\oyoi 


VUGOl 


oSot 


ifxana 


G. 


\6y<t)v 


vricrwv 


oSwv 


l^xaTiwv 


D. 


Xoyoig 


VTJGOIQ 


o^oig 


L/LldTlOig 


A. 


Xoyovg 


Vl)<JOVQ O^OVQ 


ijuaria 


V. 


Xoyoi 


V7)(JOl 


oo\h 


Ifxaria 



OBSERVATIONS. 



(1) With the Attics particularly, the vocative 
from the termination oe is formed like the nomi- 
native, in some words invariably, in others inter- 
changeably with t ; e. g, w Szoq I w (j>lXs ? and w <j>lXog* 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2) Difference in the dialects. 

(a) for the gen. sing, oo must be assumed as a 
primitive termination, whence by contraction was 
formed the usual termination ov, instead of which 
the Epic writers frequently use oio, but the 
Dorians to ; e. g. noia/ioio (Ep.) and rfpiajuw (Dor.) 

for UpiajuLQv. 

(b) the dual termination oiv becomes in Epic 
always dissyllabic, ouv ; e. g. wpouv for wfxoiv. 

(c) the original termination of the dat. plur. in 
oifft is still usual in the Epic and Ionic dialects, 
and with the poets : in Epic, however, the cur- 
tailed oiq also is of very frequent occurrence. 

(d) Doric writers form the ace. plur. with the 
termination a>c, which the poets sometimes shorten 
into oc. 

(e) the appended syllable $iv or $i is used by 
Epic writers for forming the gen. and dat. more 
frequently in this than in the first declension; 
examples even occur where it forms the accusa- 
tive ; €. g. £/c 7raG<ja\6(piv (for iraaaakov), kir avrofyiv 
(for civtio), %e6<j>iv (for ^£(I>v and Seals), £7rl ck£io<J>i (for 



§ 34. 

CONTRACTION. 

Words which have a short vowel (t oro) before 
the terminations oc and ov are usually contracted 
according to the general rules (§ 21.), except 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



105 



that the neuter termination a of the plur. ab- 
sorbs the preceding s or o, and thereby becomes 
long. 

Sing. 





6, navigation. 


to, a bone 




N. 


w\oog 


rrXovg 


OGTZOV 


OGTOVV 


G. 


ttXoov 


7rXoV 


> / 

OGTZOV 


ogtov 


D. 


ttXoo) 


ttXio 


ogtsoj 


OGTtO 


A. 


ttXoov 


ttXovv 


OOTfOV 


OGTOVV 


V. 


7rXo£ 


ttXov 

Dual. 


oorcov 


OGTOVV 


N. 


A.&V. ttAo'w 


ttXu) 


OGTEto) 


ocrrw 


G. 


& D. ttXqoiv 


ttXoiv 

Plur. 


OGTZOIV 


O(7T0n/ 


N. 


7rXoOl 


ttXo! 


oGTea 


oara 


G. 


7tXoWV 


ttXwv 


OGT£to)V 


OGTUJV 


D. 


nXooig 


ttXoiq 


oarioig 


OGTolg 


A. 


7TAOOVQ 


irXovg 


oaria 


OGTOL 


V. 


7rXoOl 


ttXol 


OGTta 


OGTO. 



Note 1 . The Epic dialect allows contraction only in the word 
voog — vovq (intellect) ; the rest retain their open form, and those 
in eog and iov are adapted to the verse either by lengthening s 
into et, (see § 20. Note 1.) as x^ K ^og for xd\Keoe, or by syni- 
zesis, (§ 22. 2.) 

Note 2. The following cases are to be observed as deviating 
from the rules of accentuation : (a) the contracted form of the 
dual in w is marked with the acute, although according to the 
rule it should be circumflexed ; e. g. vom—vio. — (b) adjectives 
in eog, which are proparoxytone in their open form, receive after 
contraction a circumflex on the final syllable ; e. g. xpvvwc- 
XpvcrovQ (golden), x^^og-x^X^ovg (brazen). The same change 
occurs also in Kdveov-tcavovv (a basket). — (c) compounds formed 
from monosyllables, vovg, irkovg, and the like, retain the accent 
unchanged on the penultimate ; e. g. avovg (senseless), gen. avov 9 
dat. avw (contracted from dvoov, dvoy), &c. 



106 



ETYMOLOGY, 



§ 35. 
ATTIC DECLENSION. 

Some words of this declension have a long in- 
stead of a short vowel for the nominative, and con- 
sequently terminate in wg, wv. These preserve to 
through all the cases, and, in those wherein ae or 
w occurs in the common declension, accompany 
it with an iota subscript. 

Sing. 





o, a people. 


ro, a hall . 


N. 


Xcwc 


avwycwu 


G. 


Xeo» 


av<jjyzi*j 


D. 


Xew 


avujyew 


A. 


Xcwi> 


av<jjys(*)v 


V. 


Dual 


avtjjyeojv 


N. A. & V. 


\s<jj 


avbjyzd) 


G. and D. 


Xs<£>V 

Plur. 


avojyeoiv 


N. 


Xsw 


av<jjye<jt) 


G. 


\ecov 


avojyewv 


D. 


Xewc 


avwyeiog 


A. 


Xsd/c 


avijjyew 


V. 


Xcw. 


avbjysto 



Note 1 . Some words in we have o> in the ace. sing, besides the 
usual termination u)v ; e. g. fi euig (dawn), ace. tyiv 'ioj, together 
with several proper names and some adjectives. 

Note 2. The number of words inflected in this manner is in- 
considerable, and several of them have yet another form, which 



THIRD DECLENSION. 107 

belongs to the common second or to the third declension ; e. g. 
for Xewg, also Xaoe, /caXwg (a rope), gen. icdXco and icaXwog. 

Note 3. As examples of irregularity in the position of the 
accent, it must be observed ; (a) that polysyllabic proparoxytones 
in eiog and euv retain the accent unchanged through all the cases 
(see § 10. Note 4) ; (b) that oxytones retain the acute even in 
the gen. sing., although from the natural quantity of the termina- 
tion, they should be circumflexed ; e.g. Xew, gen. of Xewq. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 36. 
Gender. 

Since the terminations of this declension are so 
numerous, and it is rare that any single one be- 
longs exclusively to one gender, no perfectly 
certain and adequate rules for gender can there- 
fore be given. The observation of individual 
cases, however, will be facilitated by attending 
generally to the following. 

(1) To masculines belong : 

(a) without exception words in av (long a), ag, 
(gen. avroQ and avog), £vg and w. 

(b) the most part of words in j?v, rip, rig (gen. 
rjroc), up, ovg, vp, wv (gen. tovog and ovrog), wo and 
wg (gen. u)Tog and woe). 

Exceptions * : (1) w— r) <ppr\v, the diaphragm, 
o and tj aZnv, a gland. (2) rip — 17 yaariip, the belly, 
r) Ki)p, fate, ai)p and al%p, air, which the poets use 

* In these and the following exceptions, words, whose gender 
is determined by the signification, are omitted. Comp> § 29. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

as feminine — and all contracts from tap, which 
are neuter, as to yp, spring, to Acf/p, the heart, to 
errip, tallow. (3) vq— all derivative substantives 
in otiiq and vtw are feminine, as also i) £<?%<;, a 
garment. (4) up — i) y^lp, a hand. (5) ovg — to 
ovg, an ear. (6) vp — ro 7rvp, fire. (7) wv — y aXwv, 
a thrashing-floor, y fiXy^uv or yXy^wv, penny- 
royal, y firiKuiv, a poppy, y Tpypojv, a dove, and the 
common nouns ahXwv, a ditch, and kwcW, a bell. 
(8) <*>p — the neuters iXBiop, a wish, tXwp, booty, 
TriXwp, a monster, otcwo, filth, TEK/uwp, a boundary, 
v$ujp, water. (9) wg — ro (j>wg, light, y dug, a gift. 
(2) To feminines belong : 

(a) without exception words in avq, w, and wg 
(gen. ooc). 

(b) the most part of words in ag (gen. aSog), ug, 
iv and ig, vg a'nd wv (gen. ovog). 

Exceptions : (1) all substantives in ag are fe- 
minine, but adjectives of this termination are 

Common ; e. g. o, y, $vyag (fugitive), o, y, Xoyag 

(select). (2) ug — o /era's, a comb. (3) iv and ig— 
o Kig, a wood-worm, o $eX<plg or SzXfyiv, a dolphin, o 
and rj S/c, a heap, coast, 6 iKTig (a kite), o XIc, a 
lion, 6 and i) ocpig (a serpent), o op^tc, a testicle, o 
TtXfjiig, mud, and some names of animals which 
are common, as c^ic, an adder, Kopig, a bug. (4) 
vg — 6 jSor^vc, a bunch of grapes, o %pywg, a foot- 
stool, o lySvg, a fish, o jiiuc, a mouse, o vkuc, a 
corpse, o 7raX£K:vc, a hatchet, 6 aTa^yg, an ear of 
corn. (5) wv — o aK^uv, an anvil, o /cavwv, a plumb- 
line, o and r) kIojv, a pillar. 

(3) Words terminating in 'i and \p are partly 



THIRD DECLENSION. 109 

masculine, partly feminine. Those in \p, how- 
ever, are all masculine, with the exception of r? 
KaXavpo^p, a shepherd's crook, rj AalAa^, a stormy- 
wind, 7} fy, the voice, v (j)X^, a vein, rj x*? VL1 fi> 
water for washing. 

(4) To neuters belong : 

(a) all words terminating in a, av (short a), c, 

tv, eq, ov, op, oq, and v. 

(b) the terminations «p and aq (gen. aroq and 
aoc), with the exception of o T/>a£>, a starling, and 
o \aq, a stone. 



§ 37. 

CONCERNING THE ACCENT IN THE THIRD 
DECLENSION. 

A. Position of the Accent. 

In determining the accented syllable, mono- 
syllabic words in this declension must be dis- 
tinguished from polysyllables, and again in poly- 
syllables regard must be paid to the difference of 
gender. With reference to this distinction the 
following rules obtain : 

(1) All monosyllabic words, excepting those 
which terminate in q and form the accusative in 
v, are oxytone ; e. g. piv, %o, plq, kXwv, (all with 
the ace. a) ; on the contrary, fxvq, <rvq, /cXac, |3ouc, 
ypavc, vavq (ace. v), and novq (since besides the ace. 
7ro§a stood also ttovv, which has remained in the 
derivative compounds). Moreover, the single 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

cases to irvp (fire), and nag, irav (the whole), are to 
be observed as always having the circumflex. 

Note 1. Some other monosyllabic words are circumflexed, be- 
cause properly they are contracted from dissyllables, as rjp from 
c ap (spring), nyjp from Keap (the heart), arrjp from ariap (tallow), 
ovg from ovag (an ear), (pwg from <paog (light), Xdg from Xaag 
(a stone), Qpa't, from 6pac| (a Thracian), 7ra7c from irdiq (a 
child) ; on the contrary, (jxJg from (Jho'iq (a blister by burning), 
and efe from cicu'e (a torch), remain oxytone, because the accent 
in their open form stood on the last syllable. 

(2) In polysyllabic words, by a distinction of 
gender, the following rules of accentuation obtain. 

(a) neuters have always the accent as far to- 
wards the beginning of the root as the number of 
syllables and nature of their final syllable admit ; 

e. g. wpayjua, aiviypa, Ttpag, SeXsap, fteXt, fjiiy&og, rw^og, 
aop, yovv, teXwo. 

(b) of masculines and feminines also it is to be 
assumed as a rule, that the accent stands on their 
root. It occurs on the termination in the follow- 
ing cases only : 

(a) the termination av is universally oxytone, 
also the final syllable ag in feminines and in the 
masculines 6 avSpiaq (a statue), o l^ag (a thong), 
besides the termination zvg, and, excepting some 
proper names and adjectives, the termination rjv ; 
so also rip in all masculines, and in ^ yacriip (the 
belly), besides ig in all substantives forming the 
accusative in a, with the exceptions of fiepfug (a 
string), op vie (a bird) ; lastly, the termination &> and 
i»Q in feminines, and in the masculines o evpug 
(mould), o tSpwg (sweat), 6 rawc (a peacock). On the 
contrary, of feminines, r) aXwg (a thrashing-floor), 



THIRD DECLENSION. Ill 

11 cwc (dawn), and v yaXug (a sister-in-law), are 
excepted. 

Note 2. The numerous feminine appellatives in iq which are 
derived from masculine appellations retain the accent on that 
syllable whereon it stood in the masculine ; e. g. avXi]rpig (a 
female flute-player, from avXr^riip), haTrorig (a mistress, from 
SeaTcorriQ), 27rapridrt£ (from STraprtaVrye). But if the masculine 
is proparoxytone, the feminine derived from it becomes oxytone ; 
e. g. aix^ctX(i)Ti£ (a female captive, from al-^fidXiorog). 

(j3) the termination vg comprises merely oxy- 
tones, excepting o j3orouc (a bunch of grapes), o 
Spriwg (a foot-stool), rj yewg (a jaw-bone), f) irvg 
(a margin, circumference), h Kopvg (a helmet), 17 
kiojulvq (a bundle), o vUvg (a corpse), o wtXeicvg (a 
hatchet), /? irr\yyq (a cubit), r\ irirvg (a pine), 6 
tto£(t/3uc (an ambassador), o ora^uc(an ear of corn), 
% ^Xvg (a tortoise), and proper names, as T6?rvg, 

<£>6pKvg, &C. 

(7) all feminines of the termination i»v are 
oxytone, except rj yk^wv (penny-royal), and 17 
fxy]K(jjv (a poppy) ; on the contrary, masculines of 
this termination are paroxytone, with the ex- 
ception, however, of many proper names, as 
HarfXayuv, MaKzSujv, and the like, besides those 
words which denote a place wherein something 
is found in abundance, or of particular size and 
extent, as <nroj3oAwv (a granary), olvmv (a wine- 
cellar), KWTrapicjTwv (a cypress-grove), Ittttwv (a 
stable for horses), 73-uAwv (a gate- way), and the 
like, together with several individual words, as 
amv (time), aXeKTpvwv (a cock), Y]y£jii(x>v (a leader), 
icTjSejuwv (a guardian), kuvwv (a plumb-rule), \ufxwv 
(a meadow), &c. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note S. The remaining terminations of this declension, not 
adduced here, are never oxytone, excepting a few single cases, 
as r/ Trorfjg (drink), rj ^rj'iorijQ (battle), which are constantly oxy- 
tone, and ppaSvrriQ (slowness), aSporrig (thickness), wherein the 
accentuation is uncertain. In like manner the oxytones 6 a^wp 
(a pustule), and 6 ix&p (lymph), are to be noticed as exceptions 
from the general rule. 



B. Changes of the Accent. 

(1) In monosyllabic words the gen. and dat. of 
all numbers are accented on the termination ; e. g. 
Sripog, Sripi, Sriptov ; on the contrary, %pa, %peg, 
Srjoac (from %p). 

Exceptions. The gen. plur. SacW, ^wwv,Swwv, 
TTctuW, Tpwwv, (puSwv, (j>(ot(jjv 9 and wrwv, are paroxy- 
tone. Monosyllabic participles through all the 
cases retain the accent on the root; e. g. Qvq, gen. 
<j>vvtoq ; tl)v, gen. ovroc, &c. The word nag has its 
gen. and dat. plur. accented on the penultimate, 

thus, TravrtJVf wacn* 

Note 4. The analogy of monosyllables is followed in the ac- 
centuation of the gen. and dat. by those words also, which throw 
out their accent syllable ; e. g. from ctw^, kvvoq, kwi, Kvviov, 
Kvai — from yvin), yvvaacoe, yvvaiKi, &c. Respecting the synco- 
pised forms in rjp, see particularly § 40. Note 3. 

Note 5. When the Epic dialect forms the dat. plur. of mono- 
syllabic words with the termination earn, the accent remains, in 
this case, on the radical syllable ; e, g. from ttcu£, dat. plur. natal 
and TralSeo-ffi. 

(2) Of polysyllabic words, oxytones retain their 
accent unchanged in its position through all the 
cases ; e. g. ^XtSwv, ^cAiSovoc, xeAiSovi, ^AiSova, 
^tXt^ovwv, &c. Properispomes become proparoxy- 
tone in the gen. and dat. sing., and in the nom. 

1 



INFLEXION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 113 

dat. and ace. plur. ; but, on account of the long 
final syllable, paroxytone in the gen. dual and 

plur. ; e. g. Trpay/ua, Trpayuaroc, irpayfiaTi, TrpaypaTa, 

TrpayfiuTMv. In proparoxytones, the gen. dual and 
plur. receive the acute accent on the penulti- 
mate; C. g. SiXmp, SsXzarwv. 



§ 38. (37.) 
INFLEXION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. As an external distinction of this from the 
two preceding declensions, it must be observed, 
that the nominative of the two first has a deter- 
minate casal termination, which is merely varied 
in the remaining cases ; while, in the third de- 
clension, on the contrary, separate casal termina- 
tions are affixed to the nominative, and the word 
is thereby increased by a syllable. The following- 
are the casal terminations of the third declension : 

Sing. ' Dual. Plur. 

N. — N. A. and V. £ . N. *c, neut. a. 

G. oc. G. and D. oiv. G. wv. 

D. i; D. «■. 

A. a Or v. A. oc, — - a. 

V. frequently as the nom. V. zq, — «. 

2. These terminations are affixed to the pri- 
mitive form of the word, which is called the root. 
But. this root has remained unchanged in only 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

few words, as an endeavour to attain euphony 
and the custom of pronouncing an independent 
word with a full tone on the final syllable, and in 
such a manner that it may be easily and clearly 
distinguished from other words in the sentence, 
have given rise to various alterations of the root for 
the formation of the nominative. 

3. The most usual changes by which the nomi- 
native has been formed from the root are as fol- 
low : (a) to the final syllable an g has been affixed 
(which, where it occurs at the end of the nomina- 
tive, is to be considered an appendage), or a T 
sound (S, S, r) has changed into g, to lighten and 
give rotundity to the pronunciation ; (b) a r at the 
end has been dropped without further change ; 

(c) an c has been affixed, and v (according to § 18. 
4) or even vr (§ 17. Note), before it dropped ; 

(d) the original short vowel in the final syllable 
has passed into its corresponding long one, £ into 
v) 3 o into a). 

4. By an attention to these given changes must 
the simple root to every nominative form be dis- 
covered, and according to it the declension of the 
word determined. But, as this cannot be done in a 
perspicuous and adequate manner, it is necessary 
that not only the nominative of a word, accord- 
ing to this declension, but the genitive also should 
be impressed on the memory ; and, to facilitate 
this, we here give a complete synopsis of all the 
terminations of this declension, with an accurate 
determination and distinction of the different ge- 
nitives* In placing the paradigms," however, we 
divide all the terminations, according;* to an ex- 



TERMINATIONS OF THE TH B . DECLENSION. 115 

ternal resemblance or dissimilarity in the forma- 
tion of cases, into two principal sections; (1) 
nouns in which the casal termination is affixed to 
an unchanged, and (2) nouns in which the casal 
termination is affixed to a changed nominative. 



{39. 



SYNOPSIS OF ALL THE TERMINATIONS OF NO- 
MINATIVES IN THE THIRD DECLENSION, WITH 

THE FORMATION OF THE GENITIVES. 

I. The termination a has, in the genitive, in- 
variably GLTOQ. 

II. ate has in the gen. (1) aiSog in o, rj -n-mg (a 
child), and the compounds formed therefrom, as 
awaig (childless), &c. ; (2) aiTog in h <$aig (a repast), 

and to araig (dough). 

III. av has in the gen. (J) avog in all substan- 
tives of this termination, and in the neuter of ad- 
jectives ; e.g. p£\av, avog (black) ; (2) avrog in the 
neuter of participles ; e. g. So^av, avrog (resolved). 

IV. up has in the gen. (1) apog in substantives 
of the masc. and fem. gender, with the exception 
of r} Sapap, gen. SapapTog (a wife). — (2) arog in sub- 
stantives of the neut. gender^ with the exception 
of tap (spring), vLscrap (nectar), aXicap (a defence), 
uXap (a shelter), Sevap (the palm of the hand), 
vu>Kap (laziness), and v^eap (mistletoe), which, al- 
though neuter, take apog in the genitive. 

t 2 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

V. ag has in the gen. (1) a$og in substantives of 
the fern. gen. and in adjectives that are common ; 
e. g. o, i) } fyofiag (running); (2) arog and aog in 
neuter substantives. The usual genitive termina- 
tion for these is arog, which, however, frequently 
passes into aog by dropping the r, and is then con- 
tracted (see § 45). Only few words have origi- 
nally the genitive in aog without r, as Swag, $£7raog 

(a cup), and aaXag, aiXaog (light) ; (3) avrog in masc. 
substantives and participles of this termination ; 
e. g. yptyag, avrog (having written) ; (4) avog in the 
adjectives imtXag (black), and raXag (miserable). 
VL avg has in the gen. aog, in the ace. aw ; comp. 

§ 43* ypavg, and § 46. vavg. 

VII. up has in the gen. upog. 

VIII. ug has in the gen. evrog, and, when ijoro 
precedes the termination, admits of contraction : 
KTug, gen. Krevog (a comb), and /cX«c, gen. /cAaSoc 
(a key), are excepted. 

IX. cv occurs only in the neuter of participles 
and adjectives, and has in the gen. cvroc, with the 
exception of the two adjectives appw, neut. of ap- 
pw, (masc), and repsv, neut. of rkpnv (tender), 
which have evog in the genitive. 

X. ££> used only as the neuter of adjectives in 
K)q y has in the gen. eog, contr. ovg. 

XL evg has, in the Attic, gen. eug, but in the 
Epic and Ionic nog and eog, 

XIL rj occurs only in to tcapn, gen. KaprjTog (a 
head). 

XIIL nv has in the gen. (1) nvog in monosylla- 
bic substantives and the adjectives derived from 



TERMINATIONS OF THE TIP. DECLENSION. 117 

them, but in only few polysyllabic substantives ; 
(2) evog in almost all polysyllabic nouns of this 
termination. 

XIV. vp has in the gen. (1) ypog in monosyllabic 
substantives, and in all derivatives with the ter- 
mination rvp ; (2) epog in polysyllabic substantives 
not comprehended under the above-named. Con- 
cerning such of them as drop £ in some cases, see 
§ 40. Note 2. 

XV. rjg has in the gen. (1) nrog in substantives 
of this termination, besides adjectives of one ter- 
mination, particularly all compounds in fiXr)g, Spic, 
%vi)g, and K^g; (2) tog, contr. ovg, in all adjectives 
of two terminations in rjg, neut. eg, and proper 
names which end in KXr)g, Kparrjg, p$r/c, irubng, and 

crZevrjg, 

XVI. t has in the gen. (1) irog in jmeXi (honey), 
and the compounds formed from it ; (2) tog in the 
remaining substantives of this termination. 

XVII. iv, see XIX. (5.) 

XVIII. ivg occurs only in i) zXfuvg, gen. eXpivSog 
(a worm) ; dat. plur. tXfiivm. 

XIX. ig has in the gen. (1) coc, with the Attics, 
in only few substantives and adjectives, as 6 Kig (a 
wood-worm), i) Kovig(dusi), i) oig (a sheep), o Xorpic 
(a hired servant), o yaarpig (a glutton), i) Xaicng (a 
pestle for pounding), i) Tropng (a cow), 6 noaig 
(a husband), i) fxi\vig (anger), i) Tpoing (a ship's keel), 
o, 17, 'ISpig (experienced) ; but with the Ionians fre- 
quently, comp. below 6 ; (2) i^og in the greater 
part of substantives not having a before the termi- 
nation ie ; (3) irog in r) %apig (grace, thanks), and 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

its compounds. Also of rj St/nig (right), is ad- 
duced the gen. ^jllitoc, for which, however, S^kxtoc 
usually occurs ; (4) "i%g in o, i), opvig (a bird), rj ^pfitg 
(a string), v ay\lg (a seed in a head of garlic), 
7) SlWig (a kind of wasp) ; (5) Ivog in the following 
substantives, which, besides the termination ig, 
have partly w also in the nominative : o SeX^/c (a 
dolphin), 7} ascrig (a ray), rj pig (the nose), o and ?/ 
% (a heap, coast), i? & (a nerve), r) -yXor^c (a point), 
o iKTie or J/ctcv (a kite), r) tpfiig (a bed-post), h pnywg 
(a breaker), o rsXpc (mud), v <jra{ilv (a ship's rib), 
7] to^ig (pain), r) uffju/v or vajulg (a battle), and in the 
proper names 'EXevcig, SaXa^t'c, and Tpa^lg ; (6) the 
Attic ewc in all substantives with the terminations 
mg, $ic, fag, besides the following : rj fiovfipwang 
(bulimy), i) SapaXig (a heifer), i] Seppig (a protecting 

COVer), ?7 $r)pig (a Contest), rj CvvafJLig (power), 17 iirav 

Xig (a farm), o i^ig (an adder), rj /a<7cxr?ptc (a pumice- 
stone), i) Kvr\GTig (a scraping-knife), o kottic (a tat- 
tler), o and 1) Ko^ig (a bug), rj Kv&ng (a bladder), 
o jua^nc (a seer), and its compounds ; rj fiapig (a mea- 
sure of six cotyles), 6 vv s ang (fasting), o op^tc (a 
testicle), o and i) ofag (a serpent), rj iravriyvpig (a fes- 
tal assembly), rj TrapSaXic (a panther), r? ttoXcc (a 
town), and its compounds ; rj Trp^Xic (an armed 
dance), 6 irpyravig (the president of the council), 
i) niGTig (fidelity), rj irvaTig (a question), rj pa% Lg ( tne 
spine), rj Gayapig (a battle-axe), 77 (xiXiyvig (fine wheat 
flour), 1) owavig (scarcity), i) vfiptg (insolence), rj 
vSpavXig (an hydraulic organ), v vvig or vwig (a 
ploughshare), i) <j>ang (a saying), n Qpomg (judg- 
ment). In the Epic and Ionic dialects, these 

1 



TERMINATIONS OF THE TH D . DECLENSION. 119 

words have toe or eog in the genitive. Respecting 
the ace. of the termination ig, see below, Note 1. 

XX. ov has in the gen. (1) ovog in the neut. of 
adjectives ; (2) ovrog in the neut. of participles. 

XXI. op has in the gen. opoc. 

XXII. og has in the gen. (1) a>c, contr. ouc, in 
all substantives of this termination; (2) orcein the 
neut. of participles ; e. g. uicog, uKorog (probable). 

XXIII. ouc has in the gen. (I) o$og, in o irovg (a 
foot), and its compounds, as reTpairovg (four- 
footed), &c. ; (2) ovTog, in 6 o$ovg (a tooth), and its 
compounds, together with all participles of this 
termination ; e. g. Sigovg, $6vrog (giving) ; (3) oog, 
and in the ace. ouv, in d, rj (5ovg (an ox), 6 povg, 
(sumach), and some other monosyllabic substan- 
tives, which are usually formed according to the 
second contracted declension ; (4) owrog, in o TrXa- 
kovc (a cake), besides names of towns with this 
ending, as Mvovg, &c, and all adjectives contracted 
from oae, as imeXirovg, gen. /usXirovvrog (honied). 

XXIV. v has in the gen. (1) vog in substantives 
of this termination, except to aarv (a city), gen. 
aGTEog, contr. aGTovg ; (2) wg (without contraction) 
in neut. adjectives ; e. g. svpvg, neut. tvpv, gen. 
£i>p£oc (wide). 

XXV. w has in the gen. (1) wog in the sub- 
stantive, o illqgvv, Zvog (a tower) ; (2) wrog in neut. 
participles ; e. g. fw, gen. tyvvrog (grown). 

XXVI. wg occurs only in the proper name 17- 
pwg, gen. TlpvvSoQ. 

XXVII. up has in the gen. vpoc. 

XXVIIL vg has in the gen. (1) uog'm most kffo- 



120 ETYMOLOGY, 

stantives of this termination ; (2) vdog in o kV^Xvc 
(a foreigner), h Sayvg, vdog (a wax-puppet), jj x* a ~ 
fivg (a mantle), and v KpoKvg (a flock) ; (3) v%g in 
% Kopvg (a helmet), o Kwixvg, v%g (a bunch) ; (4) ewe 

in o naXtKvg (an axe), ^ nriyvg (a Cubit), o 7rp€<7/3vc 

(an ambassador) ; (5) toe in adjectives of this ter- 
mination ; (6) vvrog in participles of this termina- 
tion. Respecting the ace. of the termination vg, 
see below, Note 1. 

XXIX. to has in the gen oog, contr. ovc. 

XXX. o)v has in the gen. (1) wvog in monosyl- 
labic substantives and in polysyllables of the mas. 
gen., whose nominative is accented on the final 
syllable; together with the following individual 
words : -h aXw (a thrashing-floor), v (5Xr}^wv or yXfi- 
X^v (penny-royal), o SoXuv (a hidden dagger), o 
icr}\u)v (the lever of a well), o k6kku>v (a pomegranate 
kernel), o Kporw (palma- Chris ti), 6 jcw&ov (a bell), 
o kw%u)v (a mug), o Kvcjxov (a crooked piece of wood), 
?! firiKwv (a poppy), o Aci/ctov (a Lacedemonian), o 
pwSwv (a nostril), o cnraSwv (an eunuch), and 6 rp/j3tov 
(a worn-out mantle). On the contrary, some oxy- 
tone masculines have ovog in the genitive, and are 
therefore to be considered as exceptions from the 
general rule ; e. g\ o riytnuv (a leader), o kyj^wv (a 
guardian), o aAa/crpvwv (a cock), b kclvwv (a rule), 
o UafyXayuv, o Mara&ov. (2) ovoe in masc. substan- 
tives, whose nominative has the acute on the pen- 
ultimate, with the exception of those already 
enumerated under (1), besides all feminines having 
the acute on the final syllable of the nominative, 
and all adjectives of two terminations in w, neut. 



TERMINATIONS OF THE TIP. DECLENSION. 121 

ov ; (3) ovroq in all participles, together with the 
adjectives kuv (willing), and clkiov (unwilling) ; and 
in some substantives, as 6 yfyuv (an old man), o 
§paKd)v (a dragon), o Xewv (a lion), o %pcnrt*)v (a ser- 
vant), 6 'Kykpiov, o kvmSwv (the projecting tooth of a 
hunting-spear), o aicwv (a javelin), o ri vwv (a tendon). 

XXXI. up has in the gen. (1) wpog in mono- 
syllabic substantives, and in 6 fx^rojo (an adviser), 
to TrtXwp (a monster) ; (2) opog in polysyllabic sub- 
stantives. 

XXXII. wg has in the gen. (1) uog in o fyiwc and 
vwoSjuutg (a slave), o Sw'c (a jackal), 6 Trarpug and 6 
juiirpo>c(an uncle); (2)ooc, contr.ouc, in substantives 
of the fern. gen. ; (3) wroc in substantives of the 
masc. and neut. gen., and in compound adjectives 
with the termination fipwg or %P^ '■> (4) or °c in par- 
ticiples of this termination ; e. g. t&vtikwq, kotoq 
(dead). 

XXXIII. The terminations $ and \p have an g 
annexed to the root, which, in the formation of 
cases, must be again thrown out ; hence, words in 
£ take for the gen. Kog, yog, or yog ; and those 
in \p, Trog, flog, or (pog : the tenuis, however, 
occurs most frequently, so that Kog is the usual 
genitive termination for words in £, and wog for 
those in $. It is yet particularly to be observed, 
that those, which have y before £ in the nomina- 
tive, take yyog in the genitive, with the exception 
of o, 7i, Xuy£, gen. \vyKog (a lynx) ; on the contrary, 
7] \vy%, gen. Xvyyog (a hiccough). Some substan- 
tives, with the termination $, insert r before the 
casal termination, and take Krog for the gen. ; 



122 ETYMOLOGY. 

namely, o ava£, clvclktoq (a king), a yjupdvaZ, vatcroQ 

(a mechanic), fi vuZ, wktoq (night), and com- 
pounds ending in yaXa£, as ojuoyaXa£, XaKTog (a 
foster-brother). The word rj «Xw7n?£ (a fox) 
shortens the long vowel of the final syllable, and 
has aXujireKOQ in the genitive. 

Note 1. In words with the terminations ig, vg, avg, and ovg, 
the accus. sing, is formed by annexing v, and that without excep- 
tion in those which have a vowel before the casal termination ; 
consequently, in ig, gen. tog or eayg ; in vg, gen. vog, eog, and sag ; 
in avg invariably ; and in ovg, gen. cog. On the contrary, if a 
consonant enters before the casal termination, oxytones always 
retain a in the accusative ; but those differently accentuated 
either exclusively take v or interchange it with a ; e. g. fj Kptj-nrlg, 
gen. Kprjirlcog, ace. t:pr)7r73a (a foundation) ; on the contrary, opvig, 
gen. 6pvi%g, ace. opviv and opviSa (a bird). 

iVbte 2. The vocative sing, has usually the same form with 
the nominative. A particular form for this case occurs only in 
the following terminations : (a) the terminations ig, vg, and eve, 
drop g in the vocative ; e. g. fidvTi (from fidvrig), 7rp£c-j3v (from 
Trpiajovg), fiaaiXev (from (3aatKevg). So also the words fiovg, 
ypavg, and -rrcug ; thus, fiov, ypav, tccu : (b) the termination ag 
(gen. avrog and avog) forms the voc. in av, the termination tig 
of subst. and adj. in ev ; e. g. fxiXav (from fiiXag), yiyav (from 
yiyag), yapiev (from yapieig) : (c) words which have ?/ or (o in 
the final syllable of the nominative, and adopt the corresponding 
short £ or o before the casal termination, retain the short vowel 
in the vocative; namely, those in r^g invariably, and the rest when 
their nom. is not oxytone ; e. g. affejoig (from daefii/g) ; on the 
contrary, \ijjJiv (nom. and voc), fj,rjrep (from j.u]~r)p), ykpov (from 
yipwv), prjrop (from piirwp). The words wari'ip, dvi]p, and carip, 
although oxytone, nevertheless take the short vowel in the voc, 
and draw back the accent to the penultimate syllable ; thus, ird-zp, 
avsp, Mep. The word aior^p, which retains the long vowel in its 
other cases, forms the voc cwrep, with the accent likewise drawn 
back : (d) feminines in w and (og form the voc in dl ; e. g. olldi 
(from alSwg). 

Note 3, From the rules given for the formation of the voca- 
tive participles are to be excepted, which have all but one form 

for the nom. and voc 



PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 123 

Note 4. The dative plural, with a few exceptions, which will 
be given in the proper place, is formed according to the analogy 
of the other cases, with the application of the rules assigned for 
the change of consonants, to which reference is made in the para- 
digms. As a peculiarity, it is only to be remarked, that the ter- 
minations evq and avg retain their diphthong in the dative plural, 
and consequently form this case in tvai and avat. 

Note 5. The neuters of this declension also have three similar 
cases, which in the plural likewise terminate in a. 



§ 40. (38 and 39.) 
PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

I. Nouns in which the casal terminations are 
annexed to an unchanged nominative : 

1. without the addition of a letter. 

Hereto belong the terminations av, up, op, w, 
vp, which are inflected throughout in this simple 
manner. But words with the terminations ap, nv, 
vp, v, W, iDv, up, partly annex the casal terminations 
to an unchanged and partly to a changed nomi- 
native. 

Sing. 



~5 


- "-"-""5« 


i/, a> vv <xl- ^\jiii/ • 


u, a \jicciv, 


u, a »iiuui ( 


4 u, a icai . 


N. 


i//a'p 


Ttaidv 


"EXXrju 


kXwv 


Sdkpv 


G. 


•^ap-og 


iraiav-OQ 


"EXXiiv-o£ 


kXu)v-6q 


3dicpv-OQ 


D 


\pap-i 


iraiav-i 


"EXXr]v-L 


kXu)v-L 


(Hdicpv-i 


A, 


li'ap-a 


iraiav-ii 


"EXXrjv-a 


kXwv-ci 


cidicpv 


V. 


^dp 


iraidv 


"EXXrjp 


dwv 


dditpv 



Dual 

N, A.& V. \Lap-e Tvaidve "EXXqv-e kXwp-s caKpv-e 

Cj. or. D. thap-olv 7raidv-oiv ( EXX{jv-olp kXwv-o'Iv cctkpv-otv 



1 24 ETYMOLOGY. 



Plur, 



N. \pap-eg 7raiav-£g "ILXXrjv-eg KXatv-eg ^dupv-a 

G. ipap-uiv Traidv-iov 'EAA//y-fa/*> kXojv-wv 3aKpv-0JV 

D. \pap-(ri iraia-OL * "EXX^-ct * KXio-ai *. Bdicpwai 

A. -ipup-ag TTaiav-ag "EXXriv-ag (cXuivag ddicpv-a 

V. \pap-eg Traiav-eg "JLXXrjv-eg xXdiv-eg ddupv-a. 

2. with the addition of a letter. 

Hereto belong the termination «, which inva- 
riably, and the termination i, which partially joins 
the casal terminations to an unchanged nomina- 
tive by means of t. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 







to, a deed. 




.N. 7rpay(.ia 




N. A. & V. Trpay^a-rt 


N. TTpay/ma-Ta 


G. 7rpay/xa- 


roc 


1 G. & D. ?r oay/xa- to iu 


G. Trpayfxa-Toyv 


D. 7Tpayina- 


TL 




D. Trpayjiia- (7i'|~ 


A. irpay/jLCL 






A. Trpay/ma-ra 


V. wpajfia 






V. Trpayfxa-Ta 


Sing. 




Dual. 

to, honey. 


Plur. 


N. fxi\i 




N.A.&V./kIXi-te 


N. jUtXi-ra 


G. jUL^\l-TOg 




G. & D. ^ueXZ-roiv 


G. jU£Xl-T6)1/ 


D. /ii^Xi-Ti 






D. fiiXi-ai \ 


A. jUtXfc 






A. jusXi-ra 


V. ^Xc 






V. ^wfXt-ra 



* According to § 18. 4. f According to § 17. 8, 



PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 125 



Note 1. Herewith are also to be classed the words enumerated 
§ 39. XXX. 6. which terminate in uv, and take r before the casal 
termination. These, however, in annexing the casal terminations, 
change at the same time the long vowel of the final syllable into 
its corresponding short one, with the exception of such as have 
the circumflex on the final syllable of the nominative, and are 
properly contracted ; e. g. Eevotyuv (instead of Bevofyaiov), gen. 

EePOtyuJVTOQ. 



Sing. 
N. X£«v 

G. X&OV-TOQ 

D* Aeov-re 
A. Xcov-ra 



Dual. 

6, a lion. 
N. A. & V. Ae'ov-re 

G. & D. \&OV-TOlV 



Plur. 

N. Xeov-rcc 

G. Atov-rtov 

D. Aeouori * 

A. \kov-raq 

V. \eov-reg 



II. Nouns in which the casal terminations are 
annexed to a changed nominative : 

1. by shortening the vowel in the final syllable 
of the nominative. 

Hereto belong the greater part of nouns in yv, 

yp } b>, u)v, cup. 

Sing. 

6, ether. 6, a deity. 
a&fip dai/J.(i)v 

a&ep-oq $atjiiov-oc 
cuSep-i ^aijuov-i 
a&zp-a Saipov-a 
a'l^rjp Sa/]uov 



6, a shepherd. 

N. 7T0l/iTJV 

G. iroip.kv-oq 

D. 7TOlfJLEV-l 
A. TTOlflkv-a 
V. 7TOlfXr)V 



o, an orator. 

f>1]T(x)p 
prjTOp'OQ 

prjTOp-i 
pi]Top-a 
prirop 



Dual. 



N.A.&V.TTOt^V-E 
G. & D. TTOljUCV-OlV 



SaifJLOV'E. pfjTOp-E 

dai/ULOV'OlV ptlTOp-QlV 



* Instead of Xiovrtrif according to § 17, Note 1. 



126 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Plur. 



6, a shepherd. 
N. iroifxiv-sg 

G. TTOlfUiZV-lOV 

G. TTOl^-Gl * 

A. 7roijiiiv-aQ 



6, a deity. 6, an orator. 

C)a/jUOV-£C pf]TOp-£Q 

cai[Aov-(jt)v pr]Top-d)V 

^ClljULO-Gl *j" f)T]TOp-Gl 

daifiov-ag purop-ag 

<$aijHQV-£Q pJjTOp-tg 



Note 2. Some words with the termination r/s throw out £ 
from the gen. and dat. sing., but are regularly inflected in the 
remaining cases, excepting the dat. plural, which likewise rejects 
the e, and inserts a before the casal termination. 



f 


sing. 


Dual 

o, a father. 




Plur. 


N. 


7rari7p 


N.A.&V. 7rar%- £ 


N. 


Trarkp-zg 


G. 


Trarp-og 


G. & D. TTdTZp-OlV 


G. 


ircnkp-wv 


D. 


TrarQ-i 




D. 


TraTp-a-ai 


A. 


Trartp-a 




A. 


Trarzp-ag 


V. 


7rarfO 




V. 


7rar£p-£C 



In this manner are declined, besides the ad- 
duced example, only rj pimp, a mother ; ?? Suyamp, 
a daughter ; i) yaGT^p, the belly ; h Ai?pir/7p. 

iVote 3. In the Epic dialect great license prevails in the forms 
of the words here enumerated, so that £ can be either rejected or 
admitted in all the oblique cases ; e, g. SvyaTtptQ and Svyarpeg, 

SvyaTspa and Svyarpa, &c. In the accentuation also of these 
words many irregularities occur, which may be reduced under 
the following heads: (a) forms, in which e is not rejected, always 
have the accent on this e ; e. g. %yarepe£, Svyarepae, prjrepa : 
(b) in forms where £ is rejected, the accent stands on the termi- 



* Instead of Xioprtri, according to § 17, Note 1. 
t According to § 18. 4. 



PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 127 

nation, and in the dat. plur. on the inserted a ; e. g. firjTooc, firj- 
rpt, fj.rjTpa.au Except from these all the syncopised forms of 
Ar]jj.yTrjp, in which the accent stands on the antepenultimate syl- 
lable ; thus, &)]fir)Tpo£, A/yp/rpi, Ar)ij.r]Tpa, and the Epic forms 
Svyarpa, S^yarpec, SvyaTpaQ : (c) in the vocative the accent re- 
cedes to the radical syllable ; e. g. iraTEp, Svyatep, AyfirjTep. 

2. After the rejection of the final letter (c) of 
the nominative. 

All nouns whose final letter is £ or \l, and seve- 
ral of those which terminate in ag } ig> vq, and wq, 
are declined in this manner : 

Sing. 

6, a crow. ?/, a storm, o, a wood-worm. 6, a jackal. 

JN. KopaE, XcuXaifi Kig 3wc 

(jr. Kopcuc-QQ XatXair-og Ki~6g %u)-6q 

D. KopaK-L XaiXa7T-i tci-i Sw-'i 

A. Kopaic-a XaiXcnr-a Kia or kiv Sw-a 

V. /copa£ XcuXaif; kiq %iog 

Dual. 

JN . A. & V. KooctK-e XaiXcnr-s ki-s S'w-s 

(jr. c£ 1). Kopasc-oiv XchXcltt-oiv kl-oiv %(s)-oiv 

Plur. 



N. 


KopciK-zg 








XatXair-tg 


/a-fc 






Sto-tg 


G. 


Kopaic-wv 








XaiXciTT-MV 


Kt-WV 






Sw-wv 


D. 


Kopa£,i * 








XcuXaxpi 'j~ 


i 
Kl~GL 






%(i)-GL 


A. 


Kopaic-ttQ 








XaiXarr-cig 


Kt-ag 






Zw-ag 


V. 


Kopcuc-zg 








XcuXcnr-eg 


tci-sg 






Zijj-zg 


* 


According 


to 


§ 


17. 


2. f A 


ccording 


to 


§ 


17.1. 



128 



ETYMOLOGY. 



3. After the rejection of the final letter of the 
nominative, and with additions before the casal 
termination. 

All terminations hereto belonging reject the g 
of the nominative, and then take before the casal 
termination a T sound, or an v, or even vr. To the 
first class belong the terminations ag, aig, ac, ng 9 *£> 
uc, wc, and ovg ; to the second, ig and Big ; and to 
the third, ag, ug, and ovg. 



Sing. 

7-0, a prodigy. 6, >/, a child, r/, contention, f/, a helmet. 6, a foot 
N. ripag 



ripa-r-og 
ripa-r-i 



A. ripag 
V. ripag 



iraig tpig Kopvg irovg 

"Kat-h-og epi-d-og tc6pv-$-og 7ro-()-6g 

irai-d-i tpi-d-i Kopv-Sr-L noS-i 

Trcu-c'-a epi-v icopv-S-a or Tro-c^-a 

Kopvv (ttqvv^) 

7raT epig & 'ipi Kopvg ttov 



Dua, 



N. A.& V. ripa-r-e wal-d-E epL-fi-e Kopv-Sr-e tto-S-e 

G. &. D. repd-r-oiv 7raL-B~o7y kpi-Z-oiv KopvS-otv 7W-h-oiv 

Plur. 



N. ripa-r-a 
G. repd-r-ojv 
D. ripa-ai * 
A. ripa-r-a 

V. ripa-r-a 



jrcu-c'-ee 


€pi-c)-fg 


Kopv-S-eg 


7ro-^-ec 


Trai'h-iov 


ipi-^-iop 


Kopv-$-m> 


7T0-()-(JjV 


Trai-ai * 


ept-oi 


KOpV-ffl * 


rco-ai * 


7rat-c)-a£ 


epi-S-ag 


jcopv-'S'-af 


7rd-cV<c 



7ra7-^-ec tpi-B-eg Kopv-S-eg Tro-d-eg 



* According to § 17. S. 



PARADIGMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 129 





Sing. 






6, a giant. 


c, a comb. 


>/, a nose. 


6, a tooth. 


IS, ylyag 


fcrcic 


pig 


ocovg 


G. yiya-vr-og 


kte-v-oc 


pi-v-og 


o^o-vr-og 


D. yiya-VT-i 


/crc-v-i 


pl-V-'l 


oSo-vr-i 


A. yiya-VT-a 


ACT£-V-a 


pl-v-a 


oSo-vr-a 


V. ylyav 


Dual. 


piv 


oSovg 


N. A.& V, yiya-VT-E ktz-v-z 


pi-v-e 


0$6-VT-£ 


G. & D. yiya-VT-oiv ktz-v-ow 


pi-v-6iv 


O^O'VT-OIV 




Plur. 






N. yiya-VT-eg 


KTZ-V-£g 


pi-v-zg 


b§6-VT-eg 


G. yiya-vr-iov 


KT£-V-WV 


pi-v-u>v 


oS6-VT-(i)V 


D. yiya-<5i * 


KTZ-Ol J 


pi-al "(* 


oSoVGl * 


A. yiya-vr-ag 


KTZ-v-ag 


pi-v-ag 


o^o-VT-ag 


V. yiya-vr-zg 


KTE-v-eg 


pi-v-sg 


o§6-VT-zg 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. On the quantity. The casal terminations 
a, ag, and i, are here invariably short. Also the 
doubtfuls a, «, v, when they stand before the casal 
termination, are generally short, the terminations 
avoc, ~ivog, vvog, formed from substantives, being 
alone always long. Of the rest see § 8. 

2. On the dialects, (a) In this declension also 
Epic writers frequently lengthen the dual termi- 
nation into ouv ; e. g. woSoiiv for ttoSoiv. (b) Be- 
sides the termination <n or oiv, the dat. plur. has 

* § 17. Note 1. t § 18. 4. 

K 



130 ETYMOLOGY. 

in Epic also <y<n, vaiv, and zaai, zggiv, which are in- 
terchanged according to the exigency of the 
verse ; e. g. from fiz\og, dat. plur. jSeXeo-i, or fiLXzaai, 

Or fiz\&G<Ji — from Kopvg, KOpuSecrai— from ttovq, nod, 

or TToordt/or Tro^EGcn. (c) The appended syllables 
(j)i or (j>iv are used by Homer in some words of this 
declension for forming the gen. and dat. plur. ; e, g. 

vav(pi or vavfyiv (as gen. plur. of vavg), KOTv\r}d6vo<j>iv 

(gen. plur. of kotvX^wv) ; and, with a inserted, 
opeaipiv, oyzatyiv, and gti$z<J(J>iv (from opog, oyog, and 
arrfcog). 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 

§ 41. (40.) 

1. Here, also, when a vowel stands immedi- 
ately before the casal terminations, contraction 
generally, though not invariably, takes place. 

2. This contraction, however, sometimes de- 
viates from the rules above (§ 21.) adduced. 
The principal ground of such deviation lies in 
the rule, that the contracted accusative plural 
of the third declension is invariably formed like 
the contracted nominative plural. 

§ 42. (41.) 

1. The terminations rjg, zg, og 7 to, and wg, are 
universally contracted. 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 



131 



Sing. 



>/, a trireme. to, a wall. 


fj, an echo, y, 


shame. 


N. rpujprjg relypQ 


VX l * 


alSiog 


G. rpir)peog rpir'jpovg TeiyEog-yovg 


flX°°s VX°v£ 


aldoog alSovg 


D. rpnipei rptf)pei Taipei Teiyei 


VX°i 7 'IX°~ L 


aldoi aidol 


A. rpirjpEci rpirjpt] Tel^og 


VX° a vx° 


aldoa aiSui 


V. rplrjpeg TEiypq 


vxoi 


aldoT 



Dual. 

N. A. V. rpirjpee rpriiprj ruyee rdyn Dual and plur. as in the 
G. D. rpirjpioip Tpiripoiv ruykoiv reiymv termination og of the 

second declension 



Plural 



Nom. 


Tpirjpeeq 


rpirjpsig 


ruyza 


ruyji 


Gen. 


rpirjpewv 


rpirjpuyv 


ruyjxjjv 


T£l X** ) 


Dat. 


Tpirjpzcri 




TZiyZGl 




Ace. 


Tpirjpeag 


rpirjpug 


Tziysa 


TUX*} 


Voc. 


Tpiripetg 


TpirjpEig 


Tuysa 


ru'xn 



Note 1. The terminations rig and eg belong to adjectives ; and 
eg, except in the three similar cases of the singular, where this 
termination remains unchanged, is declined perfectly like the 
termination og. 

Note 2. The following is to be observed of the differences of 
dialect in these terminations : (a) in the termin. <o and wg the 
Epic and Ionic dialects have always the contracted forms, with 
the exception of xphg, gen. %poog, which is not subject to con- 
traction : (b) in rjg, eg, and og, the Epic interchanges the re- 
solved with the contracted forms ; yet it is to be observed, that 
the ace. plur. in eag never, and the gen. plur. which sometimes 
remains open also with the Attics, only then undergoes con- 
traction in Epic, when e follows another vowel. Also the ter- 
mination ea of the ace. sing, and neutr. plur. usually remains 
without contraction, but is often pronounced with synizesis. The 
genitive termination eog is contracted only in some substantives 
in og, partly into ovg, partly into evg ; e. g. epifievg, Sctfifievg (from 
tpefiog and Sdfxfiog). In the remaining cases Homer inter- 
changes the contracted and resolved forms. 

K 2 



132 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 3. Deviations in reference to the accent are: (a) that 
the ace. of the termination io is marked with the acute, although, 
on account, of its contraction from oa, it should receive the cir- 
cumflex : (b) compound adjectives in y$r)g formed from ?i$og, 
retain the accent on the penultimate syllable, even in the con- 
tracted form of the gen. plur. ; e. g. avrij^ojVi Ka.Ko>i$m', for 
ovvrj$£u)v, Ka.KorjS'Eiov. 

2. When a vowel stands before the termina- 
tions rig, £c, and oc, the Attics contract a* of the 
ace. sing, and neutr. plur. not into v, but a ; e.g. 
k\wq (glory), pi. ic\&a— /cXIa, vyn'ig (sound), ace. 

vyda— vyia. 

3. Proper names ending in kA^c, contr. k\ijq, 
are doubly contracted by the Attics ; e.g. 

Nom. 'Hpct/cAf'rjc 'HpaitXriQ 

Gen. HpaxXeeog 'Hocl/cAeouc Hpa/cAouc 

Dat. Hpa/cAta 'Hpa/cA^Ei Hpa/cAfi 

Ace. 'Hpa/cAsea 'Hpa/cAf'a 

VOC. Hpa/cAg^c 'Hpa/cAac ('Hpa/cAec) 

Note 4. Epic writers in such words contract £€ into rj, and 
leave the casal termination unchanged ; thus they decline 'Hpa- 
Kktrjg, gen.'Hpa<o\>/0£,dat, 'HpcuiXfji, ace. 'Hpo/cXi/a, voc. 'HpdnXetg. 
In the adjective forms of this kind the contraction fluctuates be- 
tween r} and ei ; e. g. from dyciKXe j?c, gen. dyctKXrjog—- from 
EVKXerjg, ace. pi. ivKXelag — from evppeyjg. gen. evppeiog. — 1t7riog (a 
cave), dat. (nrri'i, dat. pi. aririjeaffi and cnriacri, occurs as the only 
neuter with the termination Eog, which is treated like the above- 
named words. Its remaining cases, however, as in others of this 
kind, are formed from a lengthened collateral form in ewg ; e. g. 
gen. tnrelovg, gen. pi. (ttteiiov. So, besides this, Homer has also 
Xpeog and %pelog (a debt), and hiovg as gen. of ciog (fear). 

4. Some words with the termination wv, gen. 
ovog and wvog, reject v before the termination in 
many cases, and then undergo a contraction, by 
which they are assimilated to forms derived from 
the terminations w and u>c. This takes place 
most frequently in the ace. sing, and in the nom. 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 133 

ace. and voc. pilfer, of comparatives with the ter- 
mination CJV. 

Singular. 

Norn, f.iutwv, neutr. fxuZpv. 

Gen. /Lid'Covog, 

Dat. fidtovi 

Ace. fjLutova and fiti'Cu), neutr. piiCov. 

Plural. 

Nora. peiZflveb and putovq, neutr. jua'£ova and /ueifro. 
Cren. jiutflvojv. 

Ace. fiutovaq and fuilovg, neutr. fxutova and fid£w. 

Voc. putoveg and fiiUflVQ, fLiu'Cova and fi£i£o>, 

Note 5. Substantives of this formation occur for the most 
part only in single forms, chiefly the ace. sing. ; e. g. elkoj for 
ehova (from eIkgjv, an image), 'A-TroWo* for 'AiroXKiova, Hoaeidw 
for Hocreid&va, kvkeu> for kvkeuvci (from kvke&v, a mixed drink), 
ct'Xw for dkiova (from d'Xw^, a thrashing-floor). Examples of the 
formation of other cases in this manner are drfovg for drj^uvog 
(from drjcJaii', a nightingale), \e\thn for xe\ic>on (from x^ l <^ K > 
a swallow). 



§ 43. (42.) 

1. A considerable number of words with the 
terminations ig, i, vg, v, retain their proper vowel 
only in the ace. and voc. sing., substituting £ for 
it in all the remaining cases, and words in ig and 
vg then take in the genitive termination an addi- 
tional a, which in reference to the accent, how- 
ever, is considered as short, like w in the gen. plur. 
of these words. The neuters in i and v form their 
genitive in the usual manner. 



134 ETYMOLOGY. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 





hi a to 


ivn. 


70, 


a city. 


N. 


TToXlQ 


7roXug 


5/ 

CMTTV 


yf 

aarrf 


G. 


iroXewQ 


iroXewv 


CLGTZQQ 


aariwv 


D. 


7r6Xu 


ttoXzgi 


ClCFTEl 


aaTzai 


A. 


TToXlV 


iroXug 


5f 

UGTU 


aorrj 


V. 


woXiv 


TroXeiQ 

DuaL 


aarv 


aarn 




N. A. 


V. TToAtE 


Ct(7T££ 




G. D. 


TroXewy 


aarkoiv 



Note 1. Besides the dual termination <au, examples are also? 
found of the usual termin. oiv in words belonging to this class, 
The poets frequently adopt the usual termin. og, instead of wc, 
for the genitive singular. 

Note 2. In the Epic and Ionic dialects the terminations ig 
and i retain i through all the cases, and contract it always with 
i of the casal termination in the dative singular, and frequently 
with e and a of the nom. and ace. plur., into i ; e. g. clkoltiq (a 
wife), gen. Iikoitioc, dat. iIkoIti, nom, plur. (ikoltliq and aitoing, 
ace. d/coinae and duoirigo 

Note 3. Of the change oft into c Homer furnishes only single 
traces, as in ttooel (II. 5, 71.) and iroau (Od. 11, 430. and only 
twice besides), as dat. of -xboig (a husband), and a few other 
words, but most clearly in the word noXtg, of which we here 
compare together the different forms occurring in Homer. 

Sing, Plur. 

Nom. 7roXi£. Nom. TroXtcc, 7roX?y£e. 

Gen. ttoKwq (ttoXsoc), TroXrjog. Gen. TroXltjy (ttoXcwv). 

Dat. TroXtt, ttoXcV, TToXrju Dat. TroXieaat* 

Ace. TroXtv. Ace. ttoXiciq *, 7roXa£, 7roX^/a£» 

2. Words in vg, which retain v before the casal 
termination, are contracted by the Attics in the 
nom. ace. and voc. plur. only; e. g. o i^Suc (a 

* To be pronounced also with synizesis as dissyllabic, Od. 8, 
560. 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 135 

fish), gen. lySvog. plur. N. A. V. lySvs for lySveg, 

Note 4. In the Epic dialect the dat. sing, of these words is 
usually contracted; e.g. opx^ori/t (dat. of dp^arvQ, a dance). 
The nom. plur. is used by Epic writers invariably uncontracted, 
but the ace. mostly suffers contraction in the usual manner. 

3. The words )3ovc (an ox), and ypavg (a matron), 
also admit of contraction in the nom. ace. and 
voc. plur. only. 

Sing. N. j3ouc. G. /3oo'c D. jftit A. j3ovv. V. fiov. 
Plur. N. A. V. /3ouc ($6eg, (56a Q ). G. /W. D. /Wi'. 

Slllg. N. ypavg. G. yoaoc. D. ypcit. A. -ypauv. V. -ypau. 
1 llir. N. A. V. ypave. (-ypaecj -ypaac/). G.-ypawv. V .ypaucrt. 

iVbte 5. The Epic dialect interchanges the resolved forms 
fioag and floeo-cn with the contracted fioug and fiovcrL For the 
nominative /3oec only is used, as sometimes even by the Attics. 
The Epic form for ypavg is ypyvg. dat. yptj'i, voc. yorji) and yprjv. 
For /3ou£ and fiovi> the Dorians have /3a»e and /3a;*/. 



§ 44. (43.) 

The termination cue takes w in the genitive 
sing. ; and in the dat. sing, and nom. and ace 
plur. admits of regular contraction. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 

6, a king 

N. fiacnXzvg N. A. V. fiaoiXk fiaaiXetg 

G. j3aaiX£(A)g G. D. fiaaiXioiv (3a<JiXeu)v 

D. fiacnXa fBaGiXtvai 

A* ficKTiXta fiaaiXuig $L fiaviXug 

V. jSctffiXeu fiaoiXug 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 1 . In the ace. plur. contraction usually does not take 
place. Besides etg the old Attic dialect possesses a collateral 
form in fjg for the nom. and voc. plur. ; e. g. IlXarai^e for IlXa- 
Tau~iQ. The poets sometimes contract also the ace. sing, ea into 
ij. Of the ace. plur. the resolved form £ac is much more usual 
than the contracted e~ig. The voc, sing, always circumflexes the 
final syllable. 

Note 2. Most substantives, which have a vowel before the 
termination Evg, contract e in the gen. and ace. sing, and in the 
ace. plur. with the casal termination, and then circumflex the 
termination ; e. g. T£vf3oevQ (an inhabitant of Euboea), gen. Ev= 
/3ow£, ace. Ev/3oa, ace. plur. Ev/3oac. 

Note 3. The Epic and Ionian writers form for the termination 
£vq the gen. in yog, and retain ?? through all the cases, except the 
voc. sing, and dat. plur., where the diphthong ev remains ; e. g. 
ficMTikevg, jGactX^oc, /3acrtXf/V", j3acn\rja, PcmtlXsv, plur. (3aai\rjeg s 
&c„ In proper names, on the contrary, the short vowel fre- 
quently remains before the termination ; e. g. Tvdevg, TvUo£ $ 
Tvc)£t, Tv^e'a. 



§ 45. (44.) 

L Some neuters in «c throw away r before the 
casal termination, and then undergo contraction, 

Sing'. 
to, a horn, 
N, A. V. >c!pae 

G e /ceoaroc, /cioaoc, K£oa>c 

D* KtpaTi, fcspai, Kcpa 

Dual 

N. A. V. /C£oare, Ktpae, Ktpa 
G. D« K£paroiv s Ktpaoiv 9 K£Owr« 

Plur. 

JNL A. V. tctpara, Ktpaa, Ktpa 

G. K£paTto)V, KEpa<OV 9 KtpUJW 

D* KZpCMJl 



ANOMALOUS SUBSTANTIVES. 137 

Note 1 . Besides xipag, the word repag (a prodigy) alone admits 
these changes, and that only in the plural with the Attics. The 
Words yepag (an honourable gift), yrjpag (old age), and Kpiag 
(flesh), are used only in this manner, and never take r before the 
casal termination. Aiirag (a cup), and aeXag (splendour), which 
have also aog in the gen., admit of contraction only in the dat. 
sing, and in the nom. and ace. plur. ; e. g. Miry for Sivai, and <ri\a 
for (reXaa. 

Note 2. In Epic the gen. of these words is never contracted, 
the dat. only sometimes, but the nom. and ace. plur. constantly. 
The Ionic dialect frequently changes a before the casal termina- 
tion into e, and even in certain words the Epic and Ionic dialects 
have only the form with e, namely in fipirag (an image), K&ag 
(a fleece), ovdag (the ground), which in the genitive are fipeTsog, 
Koieog, and ovdsog. 

2. In like manner some words also with the 
termination wg, gen. wrog, reject r, and adopt con- 
traction. Yet such forms occur for the most part 
only with the poets ; e. g. ISpiog, gen. ISpwTog, dat. 
IBpioTi and iSow, ace. ISpwra and iSpw— \pug, gen. 
yjctwTog, dat. \pu)Ti and ^pw. 



§ 46. (45.) 

ANOMALOUS SUBSTANTIVES OF THE THIRD 
DECLENSION. 

*Av»ip, o a man, G. avtpog-, [according to § 40. 
Note 2. avp6g, and according to § 15. Note 4.] 

av§p6g, D. avSp/, A. avdpa, V. avep, D. PL avtyavi. 

The Epic dialect interchanges the use of the two 
forms ; e. g. avzpi and avSpl, avepeg and avdpeg ; and, 
besides the usual dat. pi. avSpam has also the form 

avSaetrerc. 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

FaXa, r, milk, G. yaXciKTog, D« yaXaiCTi, A. yaXa. 
T6vv, to, the knee, G. yovaTog, D. yovaTi, A. yovv, 

&a Besides these are found in Ionic the length- 
ened forms yovvarog, &c, but the Epic form is G. 

yovvog, D. yowl, PL N. yovva, G. yowwv, D. yovvaai 
and yovveam, 

Yvvt), 7], a Woman, G. yvvaiKog, D. yvvaucl, A. 
■yuvcu/ca, V. yvvai; PL N. yuvaiKEc, G. yuvai/cwv, D. 

yvvaify, A. -yuiW/cac (so that the accentuation fol- 
lows the rule given § 17. B. 1, for monosyllabic 
substantives). 

Aopv, to, a spear, G. dopetTog, Sovparog, Sovpog, also 

copog, D. $6p<iTi, SovpaTi) Sovp'i, and $opl, A. $6pv, &c. 
(Comp. yow and the definitions there given for 
the dialects.) The forms Sopog and Sopl belong to 
the Attic poets. 

Zivg, o, Jupiter, G. Ai6g, D. Ad, A. A/a, V. Zev. 
The collateral forms, G. Zyvog, D. Zr?v/, A. Z^va, are 
less common. 

6p£, ^ ? hair, G. rpiyog, (see § 15. Note 6). 

KXaV, 17, a key, G. KXuS6g, D. /cXa§/, A. kXu^u 
and AcXav ; PI. N. and A. /cAftc for jcXei&c, /cXtuW. 

Kuwv, o, 17, a dog, G. Kvvbg, D. K*m, A. /cvva, V. 

kuof ; PL N. jcvvcc, G. kvvwv, D. /cu«n, in Epic also 

KVVtGGl, A. Kvvag* 

Aaag, contr. \ag, o, a stone, G. Xaoc, D. Xai', A. 
Xaav, COlltr. Xav ; PL N. Xazg, G. Xawv, D. Xatvcn. 

MapTvg, o, a Witness, G. jtiapTvpog, D. fxapTvpi, A. 
juaprvpa and fiaprvv, &C. D. PL fiapTvai, &C. 

Nave, ^ a ship, Ep. and Ion. tojwc and yi?uc has 
the following forms in the different dialects. 



IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE DECLENSION. 139 







Attic. 


Epic and Ionic. 


Doric, 


Sing. 


G. 


VZb)Q 


vy)6q and vwg 


vaog 




D. 


vr\i 


VK)i 


vai 




A. 


vavv 


vw and via 


vavv k. 


Dual. 


N.&A 


VJJE 


vrje 


vae 




G.&D 


. vzoiv 


vzolv 


vaoiv 


Plur. 


N. 


vritQ 


vy)eq and vUq 


vaeg 




G. 


V£WV 


vtwv 


vauyv 



k 



vav 



D. vavai vrjval, vy\zggi, & vtsffffi vavai 

A. vavq vr]aq, viae vaag 

Ovq, to, an ear, G. Zotoq, &c. G. PI. wrwv (comp. 
§ 37. B* 1. Exceptions.) 

YlvvZ, ri, a place of assembly, G. ttvkvoq, D. ttvkvI, 

A. TTVKVa. 

2/CWp, TO, filth, G. GKaTOQ, &C. 

tf Y$<op, to, water, G. v^toq, &c D. PI. vW, Ep. 

VCaTEGGl. 

Xa'o, v, a hand, G. x £l p°o &c. G. and D. Dual, 
Xzpolv, D. PI. yzpvi, by the rejection of <. The 
lonians constantly reject i, consequently gen. 
\spog, Sec. Epic writers, on the contrary, some- 
times use the longer, sometimes the shorter form. 



§ 47. 

IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE DECLENSION. 

1. The declension of a word is irregular when 
the derivative cases assume a different form from 
that which the existing nominative might lead 



140 ETYMOLOGY. 

us to expect. Examples of such irregularities 
have been partly adduced among the regular sub- 
stantives of the third declension, (see § 40. Note 
2., § 41. 4. and Note 5., § 45. 2. and Note 2.), 
partly enumerated specifically in the preceding 
section. 

2, But it is usual also to refer to irregularity in 
declension all forms of nouns occurring in the 
Greek language, which are either not perfectly 
formed through all the cases, or deduced accord- 
ing to a different analogy ; and in this respect, 
besides the examples already given, many other 
instances of irregular declension are to be ob- 
served, which, for the sake of a perspicuous sy- 
nopsis, we shall here arrange according to their 
several classes. 

3. The reason of all such irregularities is partly 
that in the great fertility of the Greek language 
different forms were adopted for the fundamental 
form or nominative ; partly, that out of the various 
modes of inflecting a nominative termination, 
more than one came to be used in the same 
word. Most of these deviations from the simple 
formation of words have their origin in the old 
and poetic language ; as subsequently, when the 
language was more cultivated and fixed, in gene- 
ral one form only continued in use for each case, 
although not always that which the analogy of 
the nominative or of another case might suggest, 
but such as was rendered by the poets most cur- 
rent in the mouth of the people. In many words, 
however, several forms remained for one case. 
Hence arose^ 



IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE DECLENSION. 141 

(a) Irregulars, or words whose cases admit of 
being referred to a totally different form from 
the one usual in the nominative ; e. g ywrj, voc. 
yvvai, gen. ywaiKw, &c., all indicating a primitive 
form TYNAIH. Comp. in the preceding section, 

yovv, Zeuc, vSwp, &C. 

(b) Heteroclites, or words which adopt from an 
extant nominative form more than one mode of 
inflexion for the remaining cases ; e. g. b ^vkyiq (a 
mushroom), gen. hvkt\toq, formed according to the 
third, and p/cov according to the first declension ; 
in like manner Oi^Ittovq, gen. OicuVoSoc according 
to the third, and Oi&ttov according to the second 
declension ; also %P^ (skin), gen. yjpuT'oq and 
Xpoog, according to the different modes of casal 
formation in the termination wc, see § 39. XXXII. : 
opvig (a bird), gen. opvISfochas in the plur. the col- 
lateral forms opvuq for opvfizg, and opveuv for 
opv&wv ; the Dorians, on the other hand, form 
opv'ixoQ, &c., although no nominative opvi% exists- 

Besides the examples of heteroclites here given, 
the following chiefly require observation : 

(a) Proper names with the termination r?e fre 
quently admit of a double formation, according 
to the first and third declensions, through all the 
cases ; e. g. BaX^e, Gr. BaXsw, (Ion. but used also 
in Attic, for BaXov), and BaXrjroc, D. Qa\y and 
OaXrjTi, &c. Proper names formed by composi- 
tion, which end in Kparng, eShvg, and $avr\q, follow 
the third declension in all the cases except the 
accusative, which is formed interchangeably, ac- 
cording to the third and first declensions, conse- 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

quentlyin n and r?v. On the contrary, most sub- 
stantives, terminating in r\g of the first declension 
form with the lonians the ace. sing, in set, and the 
ace. plur. in cae, consequently according to the 
analogy of the third declension. 

(/3) of words ending in oq, the following are to 
be considered at the same time as masc. accord- 
ing to the second and as neutr. according to the 
third declension ; e. g. o and to gkotoq (darkness), 
gen. rov gkotov and gkotovq, dat. rw gkotm and gkotu, 
&c. In like manner, o and to gkv<$>qq (a goblet), 
o and to Taping (pickled fish), o and to o^oq (a 
chariot). 

(7) of words in we, several are inflected both 
according to the third and second declensions ; 
e. g. TraTpMQ (a paternal uncle), gen. TraTpuoq and 
irciTQU) ; so also pjrpwc and Mlvcoq ; besides o y£\wq 
(laughter), gen. yzXuToq and y£W, ace. ycAwra and 
yzXiov. In the Epic dialect the word spwq (love) 
has also for the nominative a collateral form in oq, 
according to the second declension, which is in- 
flected through all the cases, thus — gen. epwroq and 

£p0V, &c. 

(c) Metaplasm, or the peculiarity by which a 
word has only one nominative extant, but yet 
forms to it single cases which refer to some other 
primitive form ; e. g. to v «X/c»? (vigour) belongs 
a dat. aXid (from 'AAS) ; to 'Affile (Pluto), besides 
the usual formation, belong the gen. ''AiSoc, dat. 
"A'i'gi (from 'AI2), Besides these the usual cases 
of metaplasm are the following : 

(«) substantives in oq of the second declension 



IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE DECLENSION. 143 

form a plur. of the neutr. gender in a ; this takes 
place in Attic prose, chiefly in o cWjuoc (a bond), o 

mTog (corn), o otc&hoq (a balance), pi. cWjua, GiTa, 

(TTaSfia ; but the number of such examples of 
metaplasm is much greater in the poets and the 
Epic dialect, where, to adduce only the most 

known,, are found Spv/xa, KeXev^a^ KvicXa, Xvyya, ji«7pa, 

pvirct, rap(ja y Taprapa, &c, all plurals to substantives 
in og. Some of these words have a particular 
form extant for the neuter in the singular also ; 
e, g. o Zvyog and t6 Zvyov (a yoke), o vutoq and to 
vwtov (the back), 6 kptTfxog and ro hptTfxov (an oar). 

(/3) substantives of the first and second declen- 
sions possess single forms analogous to a nomina- 
tive of the third declension. This is shown most 
perfectly in o vlog (a son), of which the following 
forms occur : G. vlov and vlkog, Ion. vlrjog (from 
'YIEY2), Ep. also vlog (from 'YI2); and so through 
all the cases, except that only v\6v and via are 
extant for the ace. sing., and to the Epic form 
gen. vloq a dat. plur. vlaai is formed. Of the other 
words single forms only occur according to this 
declension; e. g. to &v$pov (a tree), PI. N. and A. 
SevSpea, D. devSpsvi (from t6 8&r3jtt»g). In like manner 
to Kplvov (a lily), PL Kpivm, and D. /cpiWt. Also, 

to av$pa.7ro§ov (a slave), D.P1. avSpcnrodtacriv, besides 

avSpairoSoig. — o koivuvoq (a partaker), to which 
koivwveq and Koivwvag occur as N. and A. Plur. 
to TTpoQuirov (the countenance), to which an Ep. 

D. PL IS -irpoQuztraai for irpogwiroig. 

r\ v<j(.dvr) (battle), to which va\uvi occurs as dat. 
to oveipov (a dream), gen. bvupov and hvupaTog. 
(y) besides the fuller form many substantives 



144 ETYMOLOGY. 

have a simple one of fewer syllables, which is 
particularly usual in the older language, and with 
the poets ; e. g. gw for Su/ia (a house), K p7 for k?i% 
(barley), ipi for Ipiov (wool). Besides o Sepanuv 
(a servant) a form Sepaxf, is to be assumed, from 
which the ace. ^spaira, and in the plur. Sipcnreg, &c. 
are formed. 

4. Among irregular nouns are reckoned those, 
whose form either admits of no inflexion at all— 
indeclinables, — or of which single forms only 
occur, while others entirely fail — defectives. 

5. Indeclinables are names of letters, infinitives 
formed into substantives by prefixing the article, 
cardinal numbers from 5 to 100, and some appel- 
latives adopted into the Greek from foreign lan- 
guages ; as, e. g. *A|3paa/u, to naaya, and others. 
Also, to X9^ v (necessity) always keeps its form 
unchanged. 

6. Defectives are to be distinguished into dif- 
ferent classes. Thus many words, from the nature 
of their idea, can occur only in one number ; e. g. 
b iiiip (air), o al%p (ether), ol irrialai (trade-winds), 
and the names of all solemnities and festivals, 
which are always formed in the plural only, as ra 
OXvpina, &c. Others were formed originally for 
only one number, as al 'A%vai, al BrijScu, &c. All 
such are defectives of number. Of many other 
words most of the forms were lost during the de- 
velopment of the language, and single cases only 
remained in definite phrases and in a certain re- 
lation— defectives of case. Of these we enumerate 
the following : 

Gen* apv6q ? dat, «pv/, ace. Spva, plur. apvsg, dat* 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 145 

apvuai, Ep. apvecrai (formed from a root 'APHN, as 

from irarrip, gen. 7rarpog). 

to Sfyag (the body) exists only in this form. 
In like manner, ctyeXoc (advantage) only in the 
phrase o^cXo? wai (to be of advantage). 

tw 6aae (the eyes) also occurs in this form alone ; 
a gen. and dat. are formed for it according to the 
second declension, and that as plur. oaawv, ooaoiq. 

juaX??c, as gen., only in the combination vno 
fiaXrjg (under the arm), although a nominative is 
no longer extant. 

?}Xe and jULtXe exist only as voc. in accosting: 
fpzvag r)\£, (insane !) <3 ^eXs, (pray !) 



B. Adjectives and Participles. 

§ 48. (46.) 

PECULIARITIES OF THE' ADJECTIVE, 

1. As the adjective approximates so closely to 
the substantive in respect to its signification, it 
has also all the peculiarities of form (gender, 
number, case), in common with the same. 

2. But in order for an adjective to be perfectly 
adapted, in respect to form, to the substantive 
with which it is joined, it is necessary that it 
should have a threefold gender ; for the same 
property can be attributed to a masculine, a fe- 
minine, and a neuter. 



146 ETYMOLOGY. 

3, Now gender is designated by the termination, 
(§ 29. 2.) and hence it arises that adjectives have 
more than one termination. 

4. In the Greek language, however, are found 
adjectives of three terminations, whose feminine is 
always inflected according to the first declension ; 
adjectives of two terminations, whose mas. and 
femin. have a common, and neutr. a separate 
form ; adjectives of one termination, whose form, 
however, usually obtains only for the masculine 
and feminine. 

Position of the Accent in Adjectives. 

5. With respect to intonation a distinction 
must first be made between simple and com- 
pound adjectives. Simple adjectives have the 
accent mostly on the last syllable ; compounds, on 
the contrary, not on the last syllable ; e. g. kukoq 
(bad), ayaOoQ (good), Xonrog (remaining) ; on the 

Contrary, a/cct/coc, vir6\ot7rog. 

Exceptions : Among simple adjectives a great 
number of those, which pass into a substantive 
idea, retain the accent on the radical syllable ; 
e. g. (j>i\og (friendly, a friend), &vog (strange, a 
stranger), fiapfiapog (ungrecian, one not a Greek). 

6. But since in individual cases many ad- 
jectives appear as exceptions from this general 
rule, it will be necessary, for greater perspicuity, 
to enumerate their several terminations. 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 147 

A. Simple Adjectives. 
(1) with the termination oc 

(a) Adjectives having the derivative endings 

3oe, Koq, Xog, vog, irog, pog, aog (£oc, ^oc), and arog, 

and formed from simple roots, are oxytone. 

Exceptions : The accent is upon the radical 
syllable of (1) the greatest part of those in vog, 
which are derived from substantives, and signify 
a material or a class ; thus, K&pivog (of cedar- 
wood), XiSivog (of Stone), Krjpivog (waxen), a^ow- 

irivog (human), and the like : (2) all in wog ; thus, 
Sapcrwog (confident), &c. : (3) the several follow- 
ing ; $r)\oq (manifest), yavpog (proud), Uog (equal), 
iXev^Epog (free), Xafipog (impetuous), /uovog (alone), 

oXog (whole), iravpog (few), (pavXog (bad). 

(b) Adjectives in wg, tog, uog, and pog, if these 
endings are annexed to the root without other 
additions, are proparoxytone. 

Exceptions : flaXiog (dappled), S£i6g (right), 
7roXio'c (gray), and aicoXiog (crooked), are oxytone— 
also, k^tXr)jui6g (willing) is oxytone, 

(c) Adjectives derived from substantives, and 
ending in mog, are properispome. 

Exceptions : (1) all dissyllables are oxytone, 
as aicaiog (left); also the following trisyllables, 
apai6g (thin), yepaiSg (old), dr]vai6g (long-enduring), 

Kparaiog (strong), waXcuog (old) : (2) SUaiog (just), 

fefiaiog (firm), and fiiaiog (violent), are propar- 
oxytone. 

(d) Adjectives («) which are formed by the ad- 

l 2 



148 ETYMOLOGY. 

dition of the terminations i\og, vXog, and Aeoc, are 
paroxytone, as noiKiXog (variegated), opylXog (iras- 
cible), ayKvXog (curved), ariofxvXog (loquacious), 

XevyaXiog (pernicious). Also, (/3) multiplicatives 
in oog, as air\6og (simple), $nr\6og (double) ; and 
(y) the several following; oXlyog (few), rjX'iKog, 
TTvX'iKog, (of what age ?) TYiXUog (of such an age), 
uloXog (variegated), avrlog, kvavrlog (contrary). 

Exceptions : aiavXog (wicked), yoyyvXog (round), 
and all those in which the X is doubled, as 
zpnvXXog (creeping) and the like, are proparoxy- 
tone. 

(e) Adjectives derived from verbs accent the 
termination, so that those in rog are oxytone, 
those in rwg paroxytone: thus, 7roirjTog (made), 
7roir)Twg (to be made). 

Note 1. The accentuation of feminine adjectives is regulated 
by the masculines. In proparoxy tones, however, if the final 
syllable be long, the feminine must become paroxytone. Now 
since the termination rj is always long, the quantity of the termi- 
nation a remains only to be determined, and this is long when a 
vowel or p, and short when any other consonant besides p pre- 
cedes, as also in adjectives in ve, fem. eta. Thus, dyioe. ayia 
(holy), /Bg'jScuog, /3f/3cu'a (firm), ottovccuoq, onovSaia (serious), 
but yXvicvg, y\vKe~ia (sweet), ^apUiSt xapUaaa (graceful), fiiXag, 
fiiXaiva (black), &c. 

Note 2. The feminine forms a separate gen. plur. with a 
circumflexed termination in these adjectives only, which for the 
nom. have a syllable more in the fem. than in the masc. ; in all 
other adjectives one form of the gen. plur. obtains for all the 
three genders ; e. g. yXvicvc, tceta, gen. plur. yXiweW, ykvKei&Vs 
from yap'uiQ, ^apteero-a, yapiivTWV) yapiEaG&vj on the contrary, 
sXevSspwv from eXevSspog, ipa, &c. 

(2) with the termination m or ag, 
(a) Adjectives of these terminations, inflected 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 149 

according to the first declension, follow the rules 
which have been given above, § 32. for substan- 
tives of the same terminations. 

(b) of adjectives in yg, of the third declension, 
the greatest part, namely, all those which have 
eoc in the genitive, are accented on the final sylla- 
ble ; on the contrary, most of those which have 
yrog in the genitive are paroxytone ; e. g. aKgifir\q 
(exact) ; on the contrary, irkvyq (poor). 

(c) of adjectives in aq, those which take adoq 
in the genitive are oxytone, all the rest are par- 
oxytone ; e.g. $pojj.ag (running), but fieXaq (black)* 

(3) with the termination vq. 

Adjectives in vq are, in the masc. and neutr., 
oxytone, in the fern, properispome ; e. g. t$vc ? 
vdeia, ri$v (pleasant). 

Exceptions are V tcru c (half), SijXvc (female), and 

irpeafivq (old). 

Note 3. The Ionic shortened fern, of these adjectives is made 
paroxytone (see § 49. a . Note 2) ; e. g. fjMa instead of rjh'ia. 

(4) with the termination uq. 

Adjectives terminating in uq are paroxytone, 
and also in the fern, and neut. retain the accent 
on the same syllable on which it stood in the 
masc. ; e. g. yapluq, yapizaoa, x a P uv (graceful), 
Tipfjuq, Ti/iim<jGa, Tifjinzv (honoured). 

(5) with the termination wv. 

Adjectives in wv are all paroxytone, with the 
exception of kwv (willing). 



150 ETYMOLOGY, 

B. Compound Adjectives. 
(1) with the termination oc 

(a) Compound adjectives in oc are divided? 
with reference to the accent, into two classes, (a) 
those which borrow their last half from a noun 
(substantive or adjective), and (b) those which 
derive it from a verbal root Adjectives of the 
first class draw back their accent as far as possi- 
ble towards the beginning of the word, and, 
therefore, are all paroxytone ; e. g. zvoSog (from 
o&oc), £vo7t\oq (from o7rAoi>) ? 7roXv$(*}poc (from Swpoi'), 

TrayicttKoq (from kcik6q), irayyaXsTrog (from yjaXeirog). 

(b) The accentuation of those adjectives, which 
derive their second half from a verbal root, is de- 
termined by the quality of the penultimate sylla- 
ble. Those, namely, in which the penultimate is 
long, are oxytone ; e. g. Xoyayog, odnyog, and irai- 

tlaywyoq (all from ayb)), GiroKOiog (from ttoieoj). So, 

also, those which end in -fBoaKog and -<j>op(36g 
(from (36<jk(x> and ^lpj3o>), and those in -7njyoc (from 

irriyvvfii), in -aoiSoc,' 01 -tpSog (from aaSw), and SO On. 

Note 4. The compounds derived from the verbal root epyio 
are differently accented according to the difference of significa- 
tion. When they denote a "-forming or managing" they are 
oxytone ; on the contrary, when a moral operation or a mere 
quality, they are proparoxytone, or, by contraction, proper- 
ispome ; e. g. apweXovpyoe (a vine-dresser), Xt&wpyoc (a stone- 
mason), yewpyoQ (a farmer) ; on the contrary, KatcovpyoQ (a villain), 
irepUpyoQ (busy), and so on. 

(c) But those adjectives whose penultimate 
syllable is short differ in their accent according 
to their difference of signification ; they are, 



ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 151 

namely, paroxytone in the transitive, but propar- 
oxytone in the intransitive and passive sense ; 
e. g. naTpoKTovoQ (murdering a father), irarpoKTovog 
(murdered by a father), %porpd(pog (fostering wild 
beasts), ^poroo^oc (fostered by wild beasts). 

Note 5. From this rule must be excepted the compounds 
formed with prepositions, with the privative and intensive a, with 
ev and Svg, or with det, dyar, dpi, dpri, epi, rjfit, £ct, iravj and 
ttoXv, which are all proparoxytone. The same rule is followed 
also by many others of a transitive signification, when the passive 
sense, of which they are capable, is not in use. As the number 
of these latter is too great for being severally specified, we shall 
leave the knowledge of their accent to be obtained by individual 
observation. 

(2.) with the termination wc 

Compound adjectives in we, which have their 
last half borrowed from a substantive, are propar- 
oxytone (comp. § 10. A. 4.); e. g. ayypug, Xbttto- 
•y£wc, a£io^pztog, /jiovoKepwg, <j)i\6yt\iDQ, and SO Oil. 

On the contrary, those borrowed from verbal 
roots, which end in -j3ou>c, -yvug, and -xp^e, are 
oxytone. 

(3.) with the termination ng, 

(a) According to the first declension. 

Of compound adjectives in r?c, inflected accord- 
ing to the first declension, those, whose last half is 
an unchanged substantive, retain the accent of 
the substantive. The accentuation of the rest is 
to be determined by the quantity of the penulti- 
mate syllable ; namely, if this penultimate is long, 
the adjective is oxytone ; if shorty it is paroxy- 
tone. The compounds in -m/Am are excepted^ 
1 



152 ETYMOLOGY. 

which are always paroxytone, being used almost 
solely as substantives. 

Note 6. The Epic forms, with the ending a instead of r/c, are 
all proparoxytone ; thus, evpvoira for £vpvo7rr}Q. 

Note 7. Compound adjectives in ag of the first declension are 
paroxytone. 

(b) According to the third declension. 

(a) In these adjectives it is first to be consi- 
dered whether they borrow the second half of the 
composition from a verbal root or a substantive. 
Those in the first case, which are long in the 
penultimate, are paroxytone, and in the neuter, 
with a short ending, proparoxytone ; e. g. avSatiriQ 
(arrogant) ; but those which have a short penul- 
timate are oxytone ; e. g. iofta^g (violet-tinged). 

Exceptions : (1) All compounds formed with 
the words given above, Note 5, are oxytone ; e. g. 
aTspirriQ (unpleasant), eviru%g (prompt in obedi- 
ence), &c. (2) Tetrasyllabic words, in which two 
long syllables follow two short ones, are oxytone ; 
e. g. TrvpiXajULirriQ (flaming with fire), &c. (3) Those 
terminations in -t?o??c and -w'&c are, in the neuter, 
properispome ; e. g. 7to&7q>jc, neut. Troupe (reach- 
ing to the feet) ; /xi>SwSr?c, neut. pvbw&i: (fabulous), 
&c. 

(|3) Those which borrow their second half from 
a substantive are oxytone ; thus, e. g. all ending 
m -oXyircs -£&m 3 -ovpyrig, and -7rAnSrJc. 

Exceptions : (1) Those with the terminations 
-rj^nc* "V^Qs -/AEjeSriQ, -/ifVrjc, and -wArjc, although de- 
rived from substantives, are all paroxytone, and, in 

7 



ADJECTIVE^ AND PARTICIPLES. 153 

the neuter, proparoxytone ; e. g. vTrepfiey&riQ, v7rep- 
filye^c (excessively great) ; awri%Q, av^eq (cus- 
tomary). (2) Those in W (from croc, a year) in 
the older languages are invariably paroxytone ; 
with later writers partly oxytone, partly paroxy- 
tone. 

(y) Compound adjectives in -ftXvs, -ople, -Sviic, 
-/c/iTjc, and -ttXijc, that have vrog in the genitive, are 
oxytone. 

(4.) with the remaining terminations. 

Compound adjectives, whose terminations have 
not been enumerated among the preceding, are 
mostly adjectives of one termination, with a mono- 
syllabic last half, and, when this is borrowed 
from a verbal root, are oxytone ; as, e. g. all end- 
ing in -7rA^£, -pw£, -rpu>$, and -cr$a£ ; on the con- 
trary, if it is borrowed from a substantive, they 
are paroxytone, and always retain the accent 
upon the penultimate, even when the final syllable 
is short ; e. g. /ua/cpo'^ap (long-handed) ; irapa^pwr, 
neut. 7rapa<£pov (insane). The compounds formed 
from fiiyag (great) are proparoxytone ; those de- 
rived from jucXde (black), and ra\ag (wretched), 
paroxytone. 

Note 8. In the comparative and superlative, the accent always 
recedes as far towards the root as the number and nature of the 
final syllables admit ; e, g» vyuivoTepog, aKpifiiffrepog, ydiuv, neut. 
ijdiov. 



154 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 49 \ (47.) 

VARIOUS TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

A. Of three terminations. 

In all adjectives of this kind, the feminine is 
always inflected after the first declension; but 
the neuter coincides in form with the mascu- 
line, except in the nom. ace. and voc, in which it 
has a distinct form derived from the masculine. 

WCaofboq, go6ji, go&ov, Wise I 
(.vxen. ao(j>ov 9 (70(j)r)Qf <JO(j>ov. 

C*jren. ciKaiov, biKaiaq, ciKaiov. 

Note 1. The fern, of adjectives in og takes the termination a 
only when this is preceded by a vowel or p. Adjectives in oog 
are excepted, whose feminine, unless preceded by p, ends in or\ ; 
€. g* cnrXoog, cnrXor} (simple), but dSpoog, d$poa (in one mass). 

Note 2. In the gen. plur. of these adjectives the whole three 
genders have only one form, although the fern, of all that are not 
oxytone ought to be distinguished by the accent. Comp. § 32. 
Note 3. 

/ON C yXvKve. y\vKua. y\vicv, SWeet : 

(3) vq, act, v Y ' ' s 

I Ijr. yAvKtoq, yAVKuag, yAvKtoq, 

Note. The Ionic fern, of these adjectives ends in ia and ■«/. 
In the Epic dialect, and with the poets, the termination vg is 
used both for the masc. and fern. 

(4) ac ? wea, tv {% a ?™s>X a P [£(f ™> X a P Uv > graceful; 

C.G. yapnvT0q ? yupdaaqq., yapUvTog, 



TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 155 



v: 



(6) 7]V, ElVCtj £VSG. TZpZVOg, T£p£lVV}Q, TSpZVOQ. (NO 



fizXaq, /u-Acuva, jusXav, black ; 

/^n JG. uiXavog, LizXalvt]g, MfXavoc. 

(O) ac, au'tt, ov\ r . \ ,„, 

J (Besides this, only raXac, 
k wretched.) 

^repr^v, rspuva, ripev, tender ; 
" : » ripevog, TEpeivrig, T&pevog. 

other of this form.) 
C £/cwv, E/coua-a, ekqv, willing ; 

(7) wv, oucra, ovn G. e/covroc, tKovarig, ekovtoq. (So 

C only the compound clkov). 

iraq. Travel, ttclv, all ; 

/G. 7ravroc, tra&tig. 7ravroc. (So 
t8) ac, ada, av^ ' ' 

only the compounds, as a-rag, 

(jv(X7rag 9 TrooVac.) 



B. Of two terminations, 



(1) og, ov< 

(2) wg, a)vl 



o 77 riavyog, to r)avyov 9 peaceful ; 
G. tov rrjg tov riavypv. 
o 7] IXewg to i'Xewv, propitious ; 
G. TOV TYjg tov iXeu). 



Note. Of adjectives of this termination, compounds ending in 
KEpwQ, ye\(i)£, and tpwg, are heteroclites, and, besides the gen. w, 
also form wrog, &c. The neut. plur. usually terminates in a ; 
c g. 7r\f'a, 'l\ea, from TrXtwf and IXewg. 

f N i o 7] a6)(f>ati)v to Gwtypov, discreet ; 

(oj tov, ovl r - - - , . 

C^jr. tov T7]g tov tjwfpovog. 

Note. Respecting the deviation in declension of comparatives 
of this ending, see § 42. 4. The adjectives iduv (fat) and npo- 
4pwv (favourable) have also for the fern, the collateral forms 
>/ -rrieipa and // irpo^patjaa. 



156 ETYMOLOGY. 

fA\ f ° V a\r$riQ to aXriSeg, true ; 

C.G. tov Tt)Q tov aXrj^iog, COIltr. a\t$ovg e 

Note. Compound adjectives in (tjjq, from erog (a year), fre- 
quently form also a peculiar fern, in me, gen. inBog. 

Cor) appyv to appev, masculine ; 
(5) Tiv , £v\ G. tov rrjc row appzvog. (No other be- 
v sides this.) 



for) toW ro iSoi, skilful ; 
(6) t?, i i r - - - „a 

N C^J* ^"o u r*7C tov tooioc. 



tov Tr)g tov i$piog. 

Note. In the few simple adjectives of this termination, we 
find, besides the declension here given, a gen. also in idog, and so 
on through all the cases. But from these must be accurately dis- 
tinguished the compounds formed from 7r6\is (a town), iraTpis (a 
native country), and x a 'p*£ (grace), which likewise form a neuter 
in t, but retain the declension of the substantives from which they 
are derived. With the Ionians and poets, those ending in -noXig 
have the gen. in tog ; but, with the Attics, in idog. The adjective 
avaXfcig forms in the gen. dvdXtcidog. 



C. Of one termination. 

., v ' ( o i) 4>vyag, fugitive ; 

(1) ag, gen. a$og] r ' V J V * ,« 

( (jr. tov Trig (jtvyabog. 

Co /Lioviag, alone ; 

(2) ag, gen. ov <G. Tovfxoviov. (All these are in 

( use only for the masculine.) 

o r) airTr)v 9 unfledged ; 

(3) 7}v -^G. tov Trjg airTrjvog. (None be- 
sides this.) 



(4) rjg, gen. ov < 



o &e\ovTr)g, willing ; 

G. tov £%e\ovTov. 



Note. These also are used only for the masculine. The fern, 
to many of them is formed with the termination tg. 



TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 



157 



(5) r,g, geil. rjrog^ 



(6) 



tog 



(7) « 



o ^ yjuuSvrig, half- dead ; 

G. tov Trig rifi&vriTog. (So all 

those that end in Svrig, /3Ar/c, 

and Kfxr\g ; as also irkvrig 

(poor), irXavrig (wandering), 

yv/nvrig (light-armed), yepvrig^ 

(indigent), apyr)g (white), 
and some others.) 

6 i? ayvtog, unknown ; 

G. tov Trjg ayvtoTog. (So all 

compound adjectives ter- 
minating in /3po»c and xp^c) 

o ?i ^Xi$, of the same age. 

G. tov Tr)g tjXitcog* 



Note. Derivatives in £ follow the analogy of their root : all 
in -£v£ have in the gen. -£vyog ; those in -pw^, gen. -pwyoc ; in 
-■n-Xrfi, gen. ~7r\r]yo£ ; in -ojwZ, gen. -ux°£* 



(8) * 



\ 



6 r] alyiXup, lofty ; 
G. tov Ti/g alyiXnrog. 



(9) A great many compounded with unchanged 
substantives, which therefore retain the termina- 
tion and inflexion of the substantives ; e. g. airaig 
(childless), naicooyiip (having long hands), ^*a- 
/cpaiwv (long-lived), &c. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



(1) To the adjectives of two terminations, which 
have been adduced, are yet to be added several 
others derived from substantives, which retain the 
inflexion of the radical substantive, and, if the 



158 ETYMOLOGY. 

termination of the masc. is of such a nature as to 
admit of the formation of a neuter, form this ana- 
logously; e. g. zvyapiq, zv^aph agreeable (gen. o>- 

yapirog) ; airaTiop, airdrop, fatherless (gen. a7raro- 

pog) ; Snrovc, SiVouv, two-footed (gen. Sinolog) ; c5- 
vqvq, evvow, benevolent (gen. evvov), &c. Others 
which are formed from neuters assume an analo- 
gous termination for the masc. and fem. ; e. g. 
from SctKpv (a tear), 6 ^ aSaKpvg, to a^aicpv (tearless). 

(2) In those adjectives of one termination, 
which have no particular form for the neut, the 
gen. and dat. of the masc. are also used in con- 
nexion with neut. substantives ; thus, e. g. in ad- 
jectives in ag, and in those in vg given above 
under 5. 

(3) Adjectives of two terminations in og and ov 
comprehend all compounds, in which the mere 
termination og is annexed to the root, whether they 
be formed from nouns or derived from compound 
verbs ; e. g. aXoyog, ov (irrational) ; tv(f>wvog, ov 
(harmonious) ; noXvypdfyog, ov (that writes much) ; 
Siatyopog, ov (different) ; and several simple adjec- 
tives, as fiapfiapog (barbarous), r^vyog (quiet), 
vjiupog and n%aog (tame), and particularly a great 
many of those that end in wg, tfiog, mog, and eiog. 
On the contrary, simple adjectives in tog, Kog, Xog, 
vog, pog, rog, and rzog, are all of three terminations, 
and those in Kog preserve the three terminations 
even as compounds ; e. g. e7ri^uKTiKog, jo), kov 
(adapted for display). 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



159 



§ 49 K (48.) 

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

According to the given terminations of geni- 
tives, and to the previously learnt paradigms, 
most adjectives may be inflected without diffi- 
culty or obstacle. All that occurs therein as 
unusual, will be pointed out in the following 
examples. 



A. Adjectives of three terminations. 



(i) 



og, a, ov, 



and 



og, v, ov. 



Before these termi- 



nations several adjectives have an £ or o, and then 
contraction takes place, which, in some instances, 
deviates from the general rules, since the distinc- 
tive casal terminations, as a in the neut. plur., ag 
in the ace, and aig in the dat. plur., must always 
be left unchanged in contraction. 



Singular. 



N. 


Xpvaeog 


Xpvcrza 


^puo-cov, golden 


G. 


Xpvaoifg 
Xpvaeov 


yjpvGtag 


XpVGOVV 
^pU<T£OU 


D. 


XpVGOV 


XpvariQ 
Xpvaka 


XpVGOV 


A. 


X ov<T V 
yjnvazov 


Xpvtry 

Xpvaeav 


Xpvcry 
Xpvawv* 




XpVGOVV 


)(pUff»]V 


Xpvaovv* 



160 



N. A. V. 



G. D. 





ETYMOLOGY. 






Dual. 




j^pvaia* 


yjpvaia 


xpt><r£w, golden 


XP V ™ 


Xpvaa 


X? v ™ 


yjpvakow 


yjpvakaiv 


Xpvaioiv 


"fcpvaoiv 


yjpvocuv 


yjpvaolv. 



Plural 



IV. 


%pVffWl 


Xpvazai 


Xpvffta 






XpV<T0l 


Xpvaal 


Xpvaa 




G. 
D. 


yjpvaiiav 
yjpv<$koig 


contr. 

%pvo&aig 


yjpvawv 
Xpvaioig 






yjpvGoiq 


Xpv&aig 


Xpvaoig 




A. 


■yjpvakovc, 


Xpvaiag 


Xpv#£a 






XpVGOVQ 


XP V ™G 

Singular. 


Xpvaa. 




N. 


airXoog 


airXoii 


a.7rXoov } 


simple 




awXovq 


anXri 


a7rXouv 




G. 


airXoov 


aTrXorjc 


awXoov 






anXov 


airXriq 


awXov 




D. 


airXoip 


airXoig 


arrXow 






a?rX^) 


awXy 


airXii* 




A. 


tnrXoov 


anXoriv 


airXoov 






awXovv 


awXriv 

Dual. 


clttXqvv, 




N.A.V. 


oTrXodi 


airXoa 


awXod) 






a,7r\(x) 


anXa 


UTrXht 




G. D. 


awXooiv 


airXoaiv 


awXooiv 






arrXoiP 


awXmv 


airXolv* 





DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES, 



161. 



Plural, 



N. 


atrXooi. 


cnrXoat 


airXoct 




a7rXoi 


a7rXai 


airXa 


G. 


cnrXotov, 


COntr. a7rXwv 




D. 


wn-Xooig 


airXoaig 


airXooig 




ctirXoltg 


airXaig 


cnrXolg 


A. 


arrXoovg 


cnrXoag 


cnrXoa 




cnrXovg 


awXag 


airXa. 



Note 1. If another vowel or p precedes this termination, the 
feminine is contracted not into ij, but a ; e. g. 

epieoQ, contr. t peovg, sped, epeuvv, woollen. 
dpyvpeog ■ dpyvpovg, dpyvpa, dpyvpovv, silver. 

Note 2. Compound adjectives of this termination, which are 
formed from contracted substantives of the second declension, 
undergo no contraction in the three similar cases of the neut. 
plur. ; e.g. avoa (from drove), ev-rrXoa (from ev7r\6vg). With re- 
spect to the accent, they observe the rule assigned § 34. Note 2.c. 

(2) vg, eia, v. These adjectives generally suffer 
contraction only in the dat. sing, and in the nom. 
ace. and voc. plur. of the masculine. 







Singular. 




N. 


yXvKvg 


yXvKua 


yXvKv, sweet 


G. 


yXvK&og 


yXvKuag 


yXvKtog 


D. 


yXvKet 


yXvKua 


yXvKU 




yXvKU 




yXvKU 


A. 


yXvKvv 


yXvKtiav 

Dual. 


yXvKv. 


N. A. V. 


yXvKte 


yXvKua 


yXvK& 


G. D. 


yXvKtoiv 


yXvKsiaiv 
M 


yXvKtoiv, 



162 



ETYMOLOGY 



N. 

G. 
D. 

A. 



yAvKteg 
yXvKalg 

yXvKEOJV 

yXviceai 
yXvtceag 
yXvKtig 



Plural. 

yXvicdai 

y\vKUU)V 
yXvicuaig 
yXvtceiag 



yX 



vKta 



yAVKZWV 

yXvsclai 
yXvfcia 



(3) tig, £o-o-a ? 6i\ In the dative plur. these ad- 
jectives, contrary to the rule given § 17. Note 1., 
retain the simple c before the termination. On the 
contrary, participles in slg, ao-a, iv, which, in other 
respects, are declined like these adjectives, take 
the diphthong a in that case according to the re- 



gular rule. 












Singular. 




BL 




%aptug 


yaptzGca 


yapUv, graceful 


G. 




yapUvrog 


yapikaavig 


yupizvrog 


D. 




y^aouvTL 


y^apdddig 


yapuvrt 


A. 




yaoisvTa 


yapieGGav 

Dual. 


x a p' uv - 


N. A. 


V. 


yapUvrs. 


yapdaaa 


yapLvTZ 


G.B. 




yaodvrotv 


yapikaoaiv 

Plural. 


yapdvTOlV* 


N. 




yapUvTEQ 


yapizaaai 


yapitvra 


G. 




yapuvraiv 


yapiZGGOJV 


yapdvTtoV 


D. 




yapkat 


yapdGGaig 


yapUGi 


A. 




yaphvrag 


yiipdoGag 


yapuvrb, 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 163 

Note. Adjectives in //etc, fcffira, rjei>, and in oac, o£<r<ra, oev, 
are contracted through all the cases ; thus, 

Tifn]£Lg Ttfii]£ff(7a rtfirjEv, honoured. 
Contr. TtfjLTQQ Ti\ir\aaa rifjifjv, 

G. TifirivTog Tififiacrric: ttfifjvroQ, 

fieXiroeig fieXiroea-aa fieXiroey, of honey* 
Contr. /leXirovg {.lEkiTOvaaa peXirovv, 
G. jxeXtrovvroc. 

B. Adjectives of two terminations. 

(1) i]g, £r. 

Singular. 

N. o, 77, a\r)%q, to a\r}%k, true. 

VT. TOV, TYfC, TOV, aXl$£OC, COlltr. OlXl^OUC* 

*)• rw, rp, rip, aXrjfcei, COntr. a\i$u. 

A. toy, tt\v, «Xi)^£a, COntr. aXrj&i, to aX?]^c» 

Dual. 

N. A. V. tw, ra, rw, aXii^f. 

Ijt. Jj. rotv ? rati', roiV, aX^iotv* 

Plural 

N. ot, at,, aXij&Mc, COntr. aXij^tc, Ttt aX»$«S, 

contr. aX»]%. 

ir. rwv aX^St&jy. 

-D. toic, rate, ro^, aX*jSf<rt 

A. rove, rac, aXi$£ac, COntr. aXrftug, ra aX??- 

$£a, COntr. aXrftri. 

C. Irregular Adjectives. 
Singular. 
IN. fisyac jusyaXj? A l *7 a > greats 

**• ^syoAou jttE-yaXr^c /Uf-yaXoi; 

D. fisyaXy /LttyaX?? /icyaAr^ 

A. pcyav /UEyaXqv /ulya. 

M 2 



104 




ETYMOLOGY. 








Dual. 




N.A.V. 
G. D. 


/utyaXoiv 


juzyaXa 
[xsyaXaiv 

Plural. 


neyaXh), great 

fJLsyaXoiv, 


N. 


fi£*yaXoi 


juzyaXai 


ptyaXa 


G. 


jueyaXcjv 






D. 


/usyaXoig 


I^EyaXaiQ 


/LieyaXoig 


A. 


jLisyaXovg 


fjieyaXag 

Singular. 


/A£y*Xa. 


N. 


ttoXvq 


ttoXXti 


ttoXv, much. 


G. 


7ToXXov 


TroXXrjg 


iroXXov 


D. 


TToXXd) 

L 


iroXXy 


TToXXw 


A. 


TToXuV 


ttoXXtjv 

Dual. 


TtoXv. 


N, A. V. 


7ToXX(U 


7roXXa 


7ToXXlO 


G. D. 


TToXXoiV 


TToXXcUV 

Plural. 


TToXXoiV. 


N. 


TToXXo'l 


TToXXdl 


TroXXa 


G. 


7ToXXlOV 






D. 


iroXXoig 


TroXXaig 


iroXXoig 


A. 


iroXXovg 


7roXXag 


TroXXa. 



Note. In both these adjectives two forms are evidently mixed 
together, so that we must assume for each a double nominative, 
namely, besides /Jiiyag, fiiya, also fxeyaXog, 77, or, and besides 
ttoXvq, 71-0A.V, also 7to\X6q, //, qv. The correctness of this assump- 
tion is proved by the Epic dialect, in which the cases are regu- 
larly formed from itoXvc\ as, gen. -KoXioQ, nom. pi. TroXieg, contr. 
ttoXcIc, &c. ; and by the Ionic, which retains also the forms 
TroXXog and noXXoy for the nominative. But jieyaXog, as a nomi- 
native, is no longer extant. 



PARTICIPLES. 165 

§ 50. (49.) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Participles which, besides the idea of a pro- 
perty, include also that of time, coincide in re- 
spect to form with adjectives, and have all three 
terminations. 

TVTTTIDV, TVTTTOVtJa, TVTTTOV, Strik- 
ing ; 
Gen. 7WTOVTOC, TV7TTOVGriQ f TV7T' 
TOVTOg. 

(See § 40. Note 1. X^v). 



(1) 



d)V, OVGd, OV 



I 



Note 1 . If a or c, or o, enters before the termination, it is 
regularly contracted with the same. 

fTvipag, rvipaaa, rtyav, having 

(2) ag, aaa, av ) Struck ; 

V.G. TVlpaVTOQ, TVXpCKJYjg, TVTpClVTOQ. 

(See §40. 11.3. yiyag). 

f T£TU(j)to£, TZTVfyvla, TZTV$OQ } haV- 

(3) <dq, vlu s og < ing struck ; 

[G.TSTVipOTOQ, TtTV^Viag, T£TV<pOTOg*> 

Note 2. If a enters before this termination, it is regularly 
contracted with the same ; but the feminine then assumes an- 
other formation analogous to that of the masculine ; e. g. eoraw'e, 
evravla, laraoQ (standing), contr. Iotw'c, £orwa, kcrrojg ; gen. 
ioTwroe, earuiatjg, eoraJrof, &c. 

• TV(j>%dg, TVtpSeiGci, TV(j)%ev, struck; 

(4) ug, ektcl, cv ) G. Tvej&evTog, TvffieiGrig, rv^Sev- 

t ™g. 

(See § 49 b . x a p' lH ^ with the observation.) 



166 ETYMOLOGY. 

/rN i $l<$ovq, cidovGit; §i$6v, giving ; 

{o) ovg, ovcra, ov } r « «J s s , * *, 

C ^x. ^idovroe, dibovvYiQ, oioovroc- 

(See §40. II. 3. oSovc). 

/ §£i/cvuc, SeiKvvva, Seikvvv, sllOW- 

fd\ ) in g ; 

V roc. 

/'ayysAwi'j ayyeAoWa, ayytXovv, 

s~\ ~ - I about to announce ; 

J vjt. ay ye A ovvroe } ayyeAQverrj^^ ay~ 
v ysAovvroc. 

-ru7rro i u£i>oc,ri>7rrojU£V>/,Ti;7rTo^£i>(n^ 
(8) jucvoc, j«£v)7, \ struck ; 

pZVOV \ G. TVTTTOu'cVQV ,TVT7TOf.dvi](Z } TVT?TQ- 



Degrees of Comparison. 

§ 51. (50). 
DEGREES OF COMPARISON IN GENERAL. 

1. The property expressed in an adjective can 
usually be attributed to more objects than one. 
Yet it seldom is found exactly to the same extent 
in one as in another, but is possessed by one in an 
usual degree, by another in a higher or in a pre- 
eminent degree. 

% Now, if one and the same property be attri- 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 167 

buted to two different objects, and these com- 
pared with each other in reference to the measure 
of this property (e. g. the son is richer than the 
father), there arises a new form of adjective — the 
comparative ((rvvtcpiriicov ovojulo). But if a property 
exists in many objects, and one of them is to be 
distinguished as possessing it the most perfectly, 
this also is effected by means of a new form — the 
superlative (virepbzTiicov ovop,a). These two forms 
are called degrees of comparison ; and, for the sake 
of uniformity, a corresponding appellation has 
also been given to the simple form of the adjec- 
tive — the positive (SenicGv ovofia), which, however, 
is merely the appellation of the primitive form, 
and consequently must not be reckoned among 
the degrees of comparison. 



§ 52. (51.) 
FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

1. The degrees of comparison are formed from 
the positive; namely, the comparative, by ap- 
pending the termination rspog, «, ov ; the superla- 
tive by appending rarog, rj, ov. 

2. These terminations are appended to the root 
of the positive in the following manner : 

(a) In adjectives in og and vg, after throwing 
away c ; e. g. 



168 ETYMOLOGY. 

Seivoq (exalted), Seivorepoq, cWoraroc. 
j3s(3aiog (firm), j3'EJ3aiorEg>og, fizftmoTaToq. 
wpvq (broad) s evpvrepoqy evpvraroq. 
TrpEafivQ (old), TTptcjfivTEpGg) TrpeafivrciToq. 

Note 1. If the penultimate syllable of adjectives in og is short 
in the positive, o is changed into w in the comparative and su- 
perlative ; e. g. 

ffofog (wise), crcfojrepoQ, (roywrarog. 
mSapOQ (pure), KaSapwrepoe, Kafyapuirarog. 

Note 2. In this case mutes with liquids are generally regarded 
as lengthening the syllable, and, therefore, in such adjectives o 
remains before the termination of the comparative and superla- 
tive ; e. g. nriKporepoQ, TriKporarog (from niKpog, bitter). The 
poets, however, in many cases, after mutes with liquids use w be- 
fore the termination ; e. g< EvretcpwraTog, from evtzkvoq. 

Note 3. Contracted adjectives in eog — ovc, and ooq — ovq, must 
be distinguished from each other in respect to the formation of 
the degrees of comparison. For those in eog form their compar. 
and superl. regularly from the uncontracted form, and then also 
undergo regular contraction ; e. g. -n-optyvpeog, contr. iroptyvpovg ; 
compar. 7rop(j)V£iorepog, contr. Tropcbvpuirepog ; superl. iropcpvpeuiraTog, 
contr. TvopfyvpuyTarog. Those in oog, on the contrary, append 
earepog and eararog to the root, and always contract this termi- 
nation with the preceding o; e. g. evvoog contr. evvovg, compar. 
{evvoiarepog) evvovvrepog, superl. (evvoivrarog) evvovararog. In 
this last-mentioned class the Ionic dialect frequently adopts the 
usual formation ; as, e. g. evpowrepog and e vpowTctrog (from evpoog, 
contr. evpovg), 

(b) In adjectives in aq, aiva, av, to the neuter; 
e. g. 

fieXaq (black), pzXavrepoq, juizXavraToq. 

(c) Adjectives in nq and uq shorten these ter- 
minations into ££, and then append rspoq and 
Taroq ; e. g. 

aXrfiiiq (true), aXrfizGTZpoq, aXrfiiGTdToq. 
Trivrjq, gen. r\Toq (poor), TrtvtGTEpoq } invkaTaroq, 
yapmq (pleasant), yapdorepoc, yapikararoq* 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 169 

Note 4. Adjectives in ng, gen. ov, of the first declension, 
annex urrepoe and icrrarog to the radical form of the adjective ; 
e. g. KXiirrrjQ (thievish), KXeTTTiaTarog. In like manner also 4/ev^rjg, 
which belongs to the third declension, forms its degrees of com- 
parison. On the contrary, yppiariis (gen ov), for the sake of har- 
mony, takes the compar. vfipirrrorepog* 

(d) Adjectives in wv append to-rspog, and those 
in £ eo-Tepog or to-rfooc, to the root; e. g. 
Gtofpuv, gen. Giofpovog (discreet), <7W(j)pove<jTepog f 

(T(t)(ppOVe<JTaTOQ, 

apiraZ,, gen. apirayog (rapacious), apnayiffrepog, 
apTrayiGTCiTog. 

afriXiZ, gen. ci(j)ri\iKoq (growing old), cKprjXiKearepog , 

a(j)t]\lK£(JTaTOC. 

Note 5. Here also, as exceptions, occur traces of another 
formation ; e. g. /3\a'£ (stupid, gen. fiXaKvg ), compar. fiXaKiorepog, 
superl. fiXaicuiraroQ. 

Exceptions. (1) Some adjectives in oq reject 
o before those terminations; e.g. yspaiog (old), ye- 

paiTepog, yzpaiToiTog. In like manner Trepaiog (on the 

other side), (r^oXaiog (slow), iraXalog (old), although 

of the last the regular forms 7ra\aiOT£pog 9 irakaioTa- 

rog, also frequently occur.— Skpnog (of summer) 
has likewise ^tpurarog in the superlative. Also to 
(j>i\og (friendly, dear, beloved) the usual form is 
QiXrtpog and ^iXrarog ; besides which, however, 
<j>i\aiTEpog, and even the regular (piXwrspog and #iAw- 
rctTog, are also found. 

Note 6. The three forms of the comparative and superlative 
of tyiXog appear to have been used by the ancients with a certain 
distinction of signification, so that (piXrepog and (ptXrarog signi- 
fied more friendly, dearest friend ; (ptXalrepog, more dear, more 
esteemed ; and <piX<Jrepog, more beloved (of objects o£ Jove, 



170 ETYMOLOGY. 

comp. Xenoph. Memor. 3, 11, 18). Yet this distinction has not 
in general been strictly observed. 

(2) Other adjectives, instead of o and to, have 
more commonly at or £<r, or t<r, before the compa- 
rative and superlative terminations ; e. g. 

fiEGOQ (middle), fjizcraiTEpoe, fizGaiTdTOQ. [So also 
4>/Aoe, vavyoQ (quiet), i§ioq (proper), Uoq (equal), 
zvdioQ (serene), oxpioq (late), and irpwioq (early)]. 

kpfXjj/uLEVOQ (strong), £f>pii)[i£v£<TT£pOQ, tppto/jieveGTaToq* 

[So also a(p%voQ (abundant), cTriVcSoe (flat), alooebe 
(modest), aa^voq (glad), aKpcLToq (unmixed.)] 

XaXog (loquacious), XaXlvTepoq, XaXtaraToq. [So 

7rT(x)y6g (mendicant), tyofyayoq (dainty)]. 

Note 7. The use of all these irregular formations evinces partly 
fluctuation, partly an endeavour to express by different forms a 
difference also of sense (comp. Note C). For several of the ad- 
jectives here adduced there are two, for many even three forms 
of the compar. and superl. extant; thus, a^^oi/oc, besides ctySo- 
vi(TT€pog, has also d^ov^TEpoQ.—iiffvyoQ, besides ^avyatTEpoQ, also 
rivvxutepoQ ; and diffievoQ even three different forms, namely, 
ucrnEvaLTEpog, d(7fiEVE(7TEpo£, and dajjiEvioTEpog, and in such a man- 
ner that the last form is used almost exclusively for the adjec- 
tive, the other two rather as adverbs. 



§ 53. (52.) 

1. Some dissyllabic adjectives in vq and ooc 
adopt a peculiar formation in their degrees of 
comparison, rejecting those terminations, and sub- 
stituting in their stead I^v, neut. lov, for the com- 
parative, and i(7roc, v, ov, for the superlative ; e.g. 

aivy^poq (ugly), cu(X%ul>v, oig^igtoq. 
yXvKVc (sweet), j\vkio)v 9 yXv.Ki€FTO£, 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 171 

2. The following only belong to the same 
class: exP^c (hostile), KvSpog (renowned), oltcrpog 
(piteous), and ifivg (pleasing), (5a%g (deep), 

fipaSvg (slow), fipayyg (short), trayvg (thick), Trpea- 

fivg (old), rayvq, and wkvq (swift). The formation 
here given, however, is not exclusively in use even 
for these adjectives ; but besides it the usual one 
in vrrpoc and orepog occurs. Thus, e, g. oikt^oq 
takes the usual comparative oiKroortooc, although 
the superlative is always oiktigtoq. Generally of 
those in pog y the formation iwv, igtoq, predominates 
only in ala^pog and sySpog ; and of those in vq, only 
in^Suc and rayvq. In all the other given adjectives 
the regular form must be regarded throughout as 
the more usual ; thus, PpaSvrepoq (fipaSlwv only in 
poetry), wpzefivTzpoq, and fipayvrspoq (without a col- 
lateral form), &c. 

3. In some adjectives of this kind i of the end- 
ing iwv, in the comparative, is rejected, and the 
last letter, if S, S, k, or ^, changes into aa (Att. tt). 
This happens particularly in rayyq, compar. Tayiuv, 

and Sacxcrwv, neut. Sa<7<xov, Att. Scittojv and Siittov 

(where, on % vanishing, $ again enters, according 
to § 15. Note 5) ; also in (SaSvq, compar. jSa&wv and 
/3ad(j(t>y ; (3pa$vc, compar. fipaSlwv and /3o<Wwi> ; 
y\vKvg, compar. yXvKiwv and yXvaa^v ; irayvQ, com- 
par. Trayjwv and 7nWwv. And in the same manner 
also must the compar. /Wow, of jnaKp6q (long), be 
explained. 

Note. The i in this termination of the comparative is always 
•.long in the Attic dialect, but used short in Epic poetry. 



172 ETYMOLOGY. 

In the neut. iov, the accent recedes to the antepenultimate 
syllable. On the deviation of this termination in declension, see 

§ 42. 4. 



§ 54. (53.) 
ANOMALOUS COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 

1 . The comparative and superlative remain in 
several adjectives, whose positive has grown into 
disuse. These are noted the most easily in con- 
nection with some extant positive, to which they 
approximate the nearest in respect to signification. 
In the following list, where several forms of the 
comparative and superlative exist for one positive, 
those usual in prose are distinguished by the im- 
pression. 

Comp. Superl. 

1 . dya$6g (good, Stre- a fJL e i v id v 

nuous, excellent) dpeiwv (Epic) a p i a r o g 

Kpeiaaiov ") 

Kpiffffwv (Ionic) > KpctriaroQ 

k pel tt (t> v (Attic) ) 
fi e\t i ta v /5 £\t l (r r o g 

fiiXrepog fliXrarog (poet) 

XiOltOV, XtpiOV 

Xio'trepog (Epic) Xol'iffrog, XfffTOg 

<piprepog (piprciTog and (f>i- 

piarog. 

Note 1 . That these various forms were not used in exactly 
the same signification is certain, but it is also equally certain that 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 



173 



no settled distinction of them was universally observed. In gene- 
ral, the following may be assigned : d}xdi>u)v signifies more ex- 
cellent, more useful, more advantageous, preferable, braver (con- 
sequently is used chiefly in an external relation) ; to it apicr- 
toq belongs as superl. — tcpeirriov signifies stronger, victorious, 
superior, whose superl. is Kpariarog. — /3e\uW, together with 
PiXriarog, refers to internal excellence and moral goodness ; (pip- 
repog and <f>epraroQ are used of external superiority and im- 
portance. 



Comp. 



2. KaKog (bad, ill, vile) 



Superl. 

K a K I 0) V KO.KLOTOQ 

KaKwrepog (poet) 

^ £ l p o) v, or -^slpiffTog 

yepelwv and X £l P°~ 

repog (Epic) 
ijaffioy, or i}Ki(JTog 

i)TTU)v (Attic). 



Note 2. With respect to the signification of these different 
forms, the following is to be observed generally : kclkiidv, more 
cowardly, more ill, more wicked, more reprobate, more disadvanta- 
geous, more hurtful; yzipuv, meaner, viler, more unfit, more 
paltry ; fjcraiav, weaker, inferior, less good or fit. 



3. fxiyag (great) 

4. filKpog (little) 

5. oXlyog (few) 



pdt,isiv, or 

fiifav (Doric) 

fiucporepog 

eXdffGOJv, or 

eXdrruv (Attic) 

f.ieiioi> 

oXi^tay (Epic). 



fxeyioTOQ 

fiiKporarog 
tXay^iffTog 

oXlyiffTog 



Note 3. As the ideas little and few are so intimately allied to 
each other, kXaaawv and kXdx^rog are also used as comparative 
and superlative for dXiyog. 

6. TroXvg (much, many) n-XaW, or TrXtiaTog 

nXiiov 



Note 4. The Attics usually make this compar. ttXcW. They 
adopt the diphthong ei only in the contracted forms, as, e. g, 
7rXeiove for wXetoveg (see § 42. 4.), and sometimes in the neut; 



174 



ETYMOLOGY, 



■nXelov for ifSAov. In Ionic and Doric this form admits of con- 
traction in cases where o follows e ; e. g. nXEvvEg, trXEvvag^ Tikevvs 
for ttXeoveq, &c. 



7. KaXog (beautiful) 

8. pycwg (easy) 

Ion. prfiSioc 



10. 

11. 



KaXXlcOV -KaXklGTOQ 

paw paarrog 

prj'tTEpog prjirarog 

prj'tiop pifiaTog 

ICKyELVog (painful) aXyEivoTEpog aXyELvorarog 

uXyiojy dXytarog 

iriir&r. (ripe) TtEitatrEpog •KEKai-arog 

7rlix)v (fat) TriOTEpog irwrarog. 



2. Some comparatives and superlatives are evi- 
dently derived from substantives and particles ; 
to the latter, particularly those which denote a 
certain succession of things, belong ; e. g. 



Compar. 



Super!, 



wpoTEpog 


Trpwrog 


(from Ttpo) 


VTTEpTEpOe 


vTVEprarog 


(fi'Om VTTEp) 


dvutTEpog 


cipuirarog 


(from aVoj) 


VCTTEpOC 


vfrrarog 


(probably from vttu) 




KXETTTlffTCiTOC 


(from KXi7rrr)e) 




ETaiUGTClTOg 


(from ETolpog) 


covXoTEpog 




(from dovXog) 


ftaffiXEVTEpog 




(from /ScmtiXevc) 


KvvTEpog (more 


impudent) 


(from kvwv, a dog)c 



Note 5. In the last-mentioned cases the given substantive must 
be considered, by virtue of its signification, as the true positive 
to the derivative form. To others, however, occurring particu- 
larly in the Epic dialect, a substantive serves only as the primi- 
tive form for derivation, without admitting of being regarded 
properly as a true positive ; e. g. rajp^tW and KEpharog (lucrative, 
cunning, from the primitive form tcipfog, gain), kXiyxiffTog, (very 
base, primitive form t\eyx°£)> ^vxoiTarog and fivx aT °G (inner- 
most, prim, form f-ivx°Qi a corner), &c. 

Note 6. A few instances occur where, to express a still higher 
gradation of idea, a degree of comparison becomes the positive to 
a new formation ; e. g, taxaros (last) ; fVxarwVfpoc, (axaroharoG 
(last of all) ; KpG&m (first) ; TrpiorHrroc (first of all, the very first), 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 175 

Note 7. In the Epic dialect many adjectives are also found, 
which have the termination repog in the positive, and must there- 
fore be carefully distinguished from comparatives. Such are 
ffaa)T£pog (safe), dyporepog (wild), SrjXvrEpog (female), &c. 

Note 8. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, 
the formation of a comparative and superlative from the root of 
the positive was not usual, but the gradation of idea was ex- 
pressed by adding the adverbs /j-dXXov (magis, more), and fxd- 
Xicrra (maxime, most) ; e. g. rpiorog (vulnerable), rpojrdg fidXXop 
(more vulnerable) ; Svnrog (mortal), SvrjTcg fiaXXop (more mor- 
tal) ; crjXog (evident), fidXXop cijXog (more evident), cfjXog jidXivTa 
(most evident). 



176 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of Numerals. 

§ 55. 
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 

1. All numerals are adjectives, expressing the 
idea of a definite number or of consecution. 

2. They are distinguished into : cardinal (how 
many ?), ordinal (which in order ?), multiplicative 
(how manifold?), and adverbs of number (how 
many times ?). Also numeral substantives can be 
formed, all terminating in ag. 

3. For ciphers the Greeks use the letters of 
their alphabet in regular order; but, to make the 
number sufficient, they insert therein a <r after e, 
and also adopt two oriental characters, namely, 
Coppa S for 90, and Sampi 5) for 900. 

1 a, 2 0', 6 *•', 10 L They then compound : 11 
ia, 13 iy . Next 20 k, 30 A', 31 Xa, 40 p, 42 rf', 
50 v, 60 £', 70 o', 80 tt', 90 S, 100 P ', 150 pv , 200 
</, 300 r', 400 v, 500 tf>', 600 x ' , 700 f, 800 w, 900 
£). This series is also used to designate thousands, 
having then a stroke underneath the line ; e. g. a t 
or t a 1000, i t 10,000, o t 100,000. In the same order 
the ciphers are connected together for compound 
numbers, 1821 aio K a, 53,602 vjxP- 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 177 

SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 
Cardinal. Ordinal. 

1 a tig juia ev Trpwroc, V, ov, the 

first 

2 f3 $vo and ^w dwrEpog, a, ov, the 

second 

3 y rpae, rpta tqitoq, Ep. also 

rpiraror, 17, ov 

4 S reaaapeg or T^rrapEC, a, Ion. riraproc and Ep. 

T£(7(7£peC, Dor. T£TTO£>££ OF T£T£>aTOC 

T£rop£C, Aeol. iriGvpeg 

5 £ 7T£VT£, Aeol. 7r£^U7T£ 7r£/U7TTOg 

6 5- £$ £/croc 

7 2' £t™ 'ipSo/uiog, Ep. also 

8 ?'j o.«crw oy^ooc, Ep. also 

oySoaroc 

9 S £W£a ivvcLTOQ, Ep. also 

avaroc 

10 t $£/CCL §£KClT0g 

11 ici £v$£/ca fvSfftraroc 

12 t/3' Sw&Ka, Ion. & poet. SuwSeica Swc)£/caroc 

and Suo/ccu^e/ca 

13 ty rf>ic/catS£K:a & ^£/car^)£ic ? neut. T£>ic/ccuc)£K:aroe 

SsKciTpia 

14 18 TSGaaptQKaiSzKa and Ttacra- TSGaapaKaiSsKctTog 

paicqiSeica 

15 t£ 7r£vr£KeuS£/ca 7T£vr£/catS£ft:aroc 

16 i<5" E/cfcatSffca eKKaideKaroq 

N 



178 ETYMOLOGY. 

Cardinal. Ordinal 

17 it t7TTaKai§£Ka iTrraKai^Karog 

18 If] OKTli)Kai$£K(t OKTUKaiStKCtTOQ 

19 i% svveaKaiSeica tvveaKai&Karog 

20 k ukogi (v),Ep.la/co(Ti,Dor. UKOGTOQ 

UKaTl 

21 Ka UKoaiv ug, fxia, ev UKoarog irpwrog 

30 X TpiaKovra, Ion. TpirjKovTa rpiaKoarog 

31 Act TpiaKOvra ug rpiaKOGrog irpioroq 
40 /u TEo-crapaKOi/ra, Or rcrrapa- TEcrerapa/cocrroc 

/covra, Dor. rerpcuKovra 

50 V TTZVTTlKOVTa TTeVTVKOGTOg 

60 £ eSrj/covra t^ACOcrroc 

70 o J/3Soju?7*covra tj3Sop;Kocrroc 

80 ?r oy^oriKOVTCt, Ion. oyStu- oy§or}KOGTog 

KOVTCL 

90 C° Ivavrj/covra, Ep. kvvi]KOVTa kvevtjKoarog 

100 p f/carov l/caro(7roc 

200 a Sia/cotnot, Ion. ^i^/co(Tioc, SmKoa-toaroc 

at, tt 

300 r rpia/cofftot, Ion. rpa^Koaioi TpiaKoaioarog 

400 u TteaapaKOGiot TZGGapaKOGioGTog 

500 $ TTEvrafcocrtot wevraKOGioGTog 

600 % eHaKoaiot £$aKOtriocrroc 

700 1p tTTTCLKOGlOl tTTTClKOGlOGTOg 

800 tu o/cra/co<Tiot o/cra/coo-iotrroc 

900 S) hvvcLKOGiQi, Ep. ai'aKocriot cvvaKOcriooToc 

1000 a yjkioi, m 9 a y^ikioGrog 

2000 j3 §tgy\\ioi ^tgyjXiOGTog 

3000 yy rpigylXiot TpigyiXiOGTog 

4000 p TZTpaKigyjXioi TtrpaKigyjXiOGTog 

5000 £ TTSVTaKig^iXlQl TnVTaKigyjXlQGTQQ 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 179 

Cardinal. Ordinal 

6000 p i£,ciKigyji\ioi z^aKigyjiXioaTog 

7000 jC, lirraKigylXiot kirraKigyjXioaTog 

8000 r\ QKTaKiqyiXioi oKraKiqyiKioaroQ 

9000 S kvvaKigyJXioi, Ep. evvsa- hwatcigyiXioGTog 
\iXoi 

10,000 i juvpioi, Ep. Stica^iXoi jULVpioarog 

20,000 4 K Sig/mvpioi SiqjuvpiOGToq 

100,000 g dtKafciqfwpioi ^eKaKiq^vpioaToq 

Multiplicative. Adverbs of Number. 

tnrXovq, J7, ovv (*), simple tnruZ,, Once 

SnrXovq, rj, ovv, double %, twice 

rpiwXovq, ri, ouv, treble rp[g, three times 

TsrpairXovg, 77, ovv, quadruple TETpaKig, four times 

TrevrairXovg, 17, ovv, irevTaicig, 

&C. &C. 

JVote 1 . In compound numbers either the less are put after 
the greater without a conjunction ; e. g. e'ikogi rpelg, rpiaKovra 
•kevte ; or, which is most usual, the less precede, and are con- 
nected with the greater by kcu ; e. g. rpeig kcu e'ikocti, ttevte teal 
TpictKovTa. So also, in those more complicated, the several parts 
are united in such a manner as to proceed from the less to the 
greater ; e. g. 63,974 Terrapd teal k^ofii^ovTa kcu kvvavibcia teat 
rpigj^iXta teal klaKiQj-ivpia. For greater numbers a numeral sub- 
stantive is frequently used with the requisite cardinal number ; 
e. g. 100,000 deica fivpiddsg, 53,000 rptcxiXtot teal ttevte fjLvpLa.()£g. 
In the case of tens compounded with 8 or 9, the definition is 
often given by subtraction ; e. g. 28 rpLciKovra Svoiv Seovrow or 
Siovra ; 79 dydorjieovra hog Siovrog, or„ if a substantive of the 
fern. gen. stands therein, fitag Beovtrijs. 

Note 2. Of cardinal numbers, the four first, and the round 
numbers from 200, are alone inflected. All the rest are inde- 
clinable. 

* See the declension thereof, § 49 b . 

n2 



180 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Declension of the first four Cardinal Numbers. 



N. etc pia (*) €v 




N. 


rpziq Tpia 


Ijt. fvoc yumg £voc 




G. 


TpUOV 


D. evi ixia kvt 




D. 


TplGL 






A. 


rpsig rpia 


N. Suo and ££<«> 




N. 


TZGGapeq OY rirrapeg, a 


G. &U01V Att. Suai% 


Ion. 


G. 


Ttaaapojv 


also Suwv 








D. Suolv and <Wi 




D. 


rkavapGi and rLrpaai 


A. Sio 




A. 


ritrcrapag. a 



Note 3. The ordinal numbers are without exception adjectives 
of three terminations, and are regularly declined. 

Note 4. Instead of the termination nXovg] "multiplicatives are 
also frequently formed with 7r\aVtoc, ia, iov^ or 7r\aertW, ov. 

Note 5. All numeral substantives, except the first, are pro- 
duced by appending the syllable ag (acSog) to the cardinal num- 
bers ; e. g. fiovag, an unit, c)i/<x£, rptag, rerpag, irEVTrjKOvrag, eta- 
rovrag, ^iXiag, fxvpidg. 

* Besides an Epic form k, irjg, &c» 



PRONOUNS. 181 

CHAPTER VIL 

Pronouns. 



§57. 

DIVISION AND COMPOSITION OF PRONOUNS* 

All pronouns (JivTiowfxiai) serve to supply the 
place of a noun, but at the same time they give 
different relations of the substantive which they 
represent. According to these different relations 
expressed by them, they are divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : 

1 . Pronouns personal, which express the pure 
idea of person, and directly represent the same. 

cyw, I. av, thou, ov, of him. 

2. Pronouns possessive, which, formed from 
m those, indicate the property of a person. 

i/ioc, h, ov, my, mine, a6g, g^, gov, Ep. twq, tj, 
ov, Dor. tboq, a, 6v, thy, thine, og, v, ov, Ep. 

£oc, r), ov, Dor. log, a, ov, his. 

yfxzTEpog, a, ov, Dor. and Ep. a/x6g, i], 6v, our. 
vfxtTtpog, a, ov, Dor. and Ep. v^6g, 7], ov, your. 
a<j>£T£pog, a, ov, Dor and Ep. <T(j)6g, //, 6v, their. 

vuirtpog, a, ov, of US both. GcjxviTepog, of you both. 

3. Pronoun definite, for the nearer and stronger 
distinction of one object from another. 

avroq, avrrj, avro, he, self. 



182 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note. The Ionic dialect inserts e before the long termination 
in this word ; e. g. civtewv, uvtzoioiv, for auru>v> ai/Toig. 

4. Pronouns reflexive, for the more accute indi- 
cation and separation of a person. 

kfiavrov, EjLiavTYjQ, of myself. 

Gtavrov Or aavrov, aavr^q, of thyself. 

lavrov Or avrov, avrnq, avrov, of himself. 

5. Pronouns demonstrative, which distinctly point 
out the object of which we are discoursing, with 
the accessory idea of place, 

O 7} TO } thCe 

o§£, $&£, rock, this. 
ovroq, avTY], tovto, this. 

IfCaVOC, ZKUVY], ZKUVO, Ion. KtLVOQ, DoY. TllVOQj that. 

o i) to Suva, a certain person. 

6. Pronouns relative, which refer to an object 
already mentioned^ and give to it a nearer de- 
finition. 

oq % o, who. 

ogtiq, ring, 'on, whoever. 

7. Pronouns indefinite, which merely indicate an 
object generally, without further definition. 

rtc, rl (enclitic), any one. 

aXXoc, aXXri, aXXo, another. 

tTtpog, tTspa, irtpov, the other of two. 

8. Pronoun interrogative. 

riq s ti, who ? what ? 

9. Pronoun negatives, which denote the absence 
of a person or thing. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



J83 



n it ~ 

VTIQ, OVTl, I 

, { no one. 

ling, fxrjTi, > 

%v 9 $ 



no, none. 



OVTIQ. 

ov^ug, ov§£/j.ia, ov^ev, 

10. Pronoun reciprocal, which designates the 
mutual action of different persons upon each other. 

Dual aXArjXoiv, plur. aXXrjXwv, of each other. 







§ 58. 






INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 




i 


Personals. 
Sing. 




N. 


tyw, I. 


ov, thou 




G. 
D. 
A. 


hfxov pov 

EfXOl /HOI 


GOV 

aoi 

Dual 


ov of him 

•r 
Ofc 

€ 


N.A. 


VWl vw 


0(j>tol G<j)U) 


(T<f>(*)E 


G.D. 


vww vwv 


G(j>WlV <T<j>WV 


G<j>b)iV 






Plur. 


- 


N. 
G. 
D. 


ypug 

fjjULbJV 

tj/mv 


v/uug 

VfXlV 


&<l>ug. neutr. G$La 

<7<I>U)V 
G(jil(Tl 


A. 


Vfxag 


vfiag 


®$ag, neutr. o<j>za 



184 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Note 1 . Many of these forms are enclitic, namely, the oblique 
cases singular of all the three pronouns, except the dissyllabic 
kfxov, Efxol, k\xk. Of the third all the forms are enclitic but a§iov 
and cr(pa.e. On the contrary, the whole of the forms retain their 
proper accent when they are used with particular expression and 
in opposition to some other person, or when they depend upon a 
preposition. In such cases the pronoun of the first person uses 
only its dissyllabic forms ; ejiov, ejioi, ejie. 

Note 2. The particle ye, which is joined to a pronoun for greater 
emphasis, mingles with those of the first and second person into 
one word, and then the forms eyw, l/iot, and ejjle, throw back their 
accent ; thus, eywye, tjuoiye, Efxeye ; on the contrary, kjxovye. (in- 
stead of kfjiioyz)* 

Note 3. In the older language and in the different dialects these 
personal pronouns exhibit a great variety of forms, which we 
shall here reduce into a synopsis. The Epic dialect constitutes 
the basis therein, and the peculiarities of the others are added with 
their proper designation. 

Sing. 

N. Iy«lywv(*) gv TvvT} t Dor. rv (*) — — (*) 

G. Efieo, length. Efieio trio, length. cteIo fo, length, do 
contr. ejjlevj fiEv contr. (tev <tev contr. ev ev 

efiiSev, Aeol. and treSev teo~lo, Dor. tev, e$ev 9 Aeol. eovq 

Dor. EJJLEVQ & EflOVQ Aeol. TEVQ & TEOVQ 

D. ifioi fioi 7 Dor. Ejj.lv ffoi zoi ol ol 

rot TE J iv, Dor. rlv Dor. "iv 

A. ifxi fxe tri (te x Dor. rv and rlv «e c e 

juuvDor. & Att. w 

<rdt£ 



Dual. 



N. vwi via iv 
G. and D„ vmv 
A. vio'i vd 



(7(f) W> 

er(pio"iv 
fftiia'i ff(bui 



otyiaiv 
trdxae &(j)ta 



* Those forms which occur only as enclitics are given un- 
accented. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



185 



Plur. 

N. (Ion. rj/JLeeg) yfietQ (Ion. vfiieg) v/ielg 
aixfiEQ, Dor. ajxig vfi/ieg, Dor. bfieg 

G. f]jjii(i)v i]fxelo>v 

D. yfjuu i)fitv ijfxlv 
d/xfjLiy afifii 

A. fjfxeag rf^iag fjfjtag 
a/j-fie, Dor. afxi 



Vfl£(i)V VjJLEUOV 
V/JUP VfMtV 

VJXfllV VflfJLL 

_ vjiiag v/nag v/mag 
v/ifxe, Dor. vfie 



&(j>lfflV (T(j)l(Tl 

crcbiag ff(pag 
ffd)e 



Reflexives. 
Singular. 

I myself. Thou thyself. He himself. 

N. (e yio avTog avTi}) (gv avToqavTii) (clvtoq) 

G. 
D. 



suavrov £fj.avTrjt; gclvtov gcivthq avTOV clvtiiq avrov 

tfxavTio hfxavriQ Gavrw Gavry avrM avry avrto 

A. E/mavrov Zfxavrfjv Gavrov Gavrrjv avrov avrrjv avro 

Plural. 



N. fifxuq avroi 


vfiuq avroi 


G(j>ug avTOi 


Gr. t//uwv a\JTU)v 


vjuwv avTU)v 


aVTLJV 


D. 


&C. 


avroig avro 


A. 




avrovc avT( 



Note 4. Instead of av in these forms, the Ionic dialect always 
uses wi/, before which e remains unchanged, and is even inserted 
in the reflexive of the first person; thus, ifxeuvrov, aeo)VTov t 

klOVTOVf &c. 

Demonstratives, 

The declension of the simplest demonstrative, 
or article, has been given above, § 31. This is 
followed by its derivatives, namely, o&, ?}&, t6§£, 
in which the particle &• is annexed unchanged to 
the several cases of 6, r), to, thus, gen. rovck, rrjcck, 



D. 
A. 



186 ETYMOLOGY. 

rovSe, &c. and ovtoq, in which r is added at the 
beginning of the root in the same forms as in the 
article. 

Note 5. In the Doric and Epic dialects the article prefixes 
the r in the nom. plur. also of the masc. and fem., thus, roi and 
ral instead of ol and at. In the remaining cases it experiences 
all the variations which have been noticed in the dialects of the 
first and second declensions ; toIo for tov, rdajv for rwv, raiai 
and rrjarw for rcue, rwe, Dor. for rovg, &c. Of oh the remarkable 
Epic form of the dat plur. rotgheai or rolshatrt for rolgh, must 
be observed. 

Singular. 

N. ovTog avrrj tovto, this 

G. TOVTOV TCLVTY]Q TOVTOV 
TOVTO) TOVT^ TOVTO) 
TOVTOV TUVTriV TOVTO 

Dual. 

N. A. TOVTO) TttVTa TOVTO) 

G. D* TOVTOIV TUVTaiV TOVTOIV 

Plural. 

N. ovrot avTai Tavra 

G. TOVTO)V 

D. TovTOig TavTaiQ tovtoiq 
A. tovtovq TavTag raura 

Note 6, The lonians insert an € before the long final syllable 
of this pronoun ; e. g. tovtIov^ rot/rcW, for tovtov, rovriov, &c. 

Sing. Plur. 

N. gelva, a certain person &"*c 

G. SAfog $dvo)v 

D«s ■- # * * 

. cuvi 

A. ScTva 8«vac 

JVote 7» Sometimes cam is also used as an indeclinable. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 187 

Indefinites and Interrogatives. 

Singular. 
N. t\q t\, any one rig t1 9 who ? what ? 

G. tlvoq and rov, Ep. teo, rev tivoq and rov, Ep. r£o 

D. rm and tw, Ep. rzw r/vi and tw 

A. 



Tiva Tiva 

&c. 

iVote 8. These two pronouns of perfectly similar form are dis- 
tinguished by the accent. The indefinite is always enclitic, and 
in the oblique cases takes the accent on its ending ; on the con- 
trary, the interrogative, even in a connected discourse, remains 
always orthotone in the nom., and in the oblique cases preserves 
the accent on the radical syllable, 

Note 9. Instead of Tiva as neutr. plur. of the indef. we find 
the collateral form Att. arra, Ion. aaaa, which is not enclitic. 
In Ionic also the accessory forms t£u>i> and rioiui for nvwv % tkti, 
occur. 

Relatives. 
Singular. 
N. o<jTiQ y)tiq o ti, whoever 

. ovjivog rjcrrivog ovrivog 
D. wrtvt yTivi wrtvi 
A» ovriva rivTiva o rt 

Dual. 

±S, A. WTive artve wtive 

Or. 1) 9 o'lvtivoiv aivrivaiv oivrivoiv 

Plural. 

Ntt ,/ V 

. oitiveq airivzg itTiva 

Cr. wvTivbJv 

Dr v r 

• OIGTIGI CllGTlGl OIGTIGL 

A, ovGTivag aarivag ariva 



188 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Note 10. Of this pronoun the forms Srov and orw for ovtlvoq, 
uTivi, and arret for driva, are of very frequent occurrence. In 
general, besides the form oarte, whose declension is two-fold, 
another form orig with an undeclined initial syllable must be ob- 
served. This is much used in the Epic dialect, and inflected in 
the following manner. 

Singular, Plural. 

N. orig, neutr. o ™ and om N. (omwg) 

G. OTTEO OTTEV and QTtV G. OTZ<s)V 

D. Grew OTii) D« oreoicn 

A. QTiva, neutr. o rt and orrt A. or ivaq 



Reciprocal* 

Dual. 
aWnXaw aXX^Xoiv, one another, 

ctXXrjXa «XXt/X(l> 



G. D. aXX/jXoiv 
A. aXXrjXw 



Plural. 

G. aWrjXtov 

D. aWrjXoig aWiiXaig aXXrjXoiC 

A. aXXrjXovc aWr}\ag a\Xr)\a 

Note 1 1 . Of this recipr. the plural form is the most usual, 
and is frequently adopted even when the discourse treats of two 
persons. 

Note 12. All pronouns, not inflected here, follow the declension 
of adjectives in oe, ?/, or, with the distinction that those, which 
have o in the nom. neutr., retain it also in the ace. neutr. 



§ 59. 
CORRELATIVES. 

1. Correlatives are words, which stand in a 
mutual relation to each other, both with respect 



CORRELATIVES. 



189 



to form and signification. They are all directed 
to the general nature of an object, as, e. g. mag- 
nitude, form, situation, age, &c, and in such a 
manner that one asks a question respecting it, to 
which the rest contain the simplest answers and 
relations. 

2. They are all adjectives of three termina- 
tions, having one common root, and distinguished 
from one another solely by their initial letters 
and accents. 

Synopsis. 



Interrogative. 


Indefinite. 


Demonstrative. 


Relative. 


ttoctoc, how great ? 


■kogoQ) of any 


roaog 


ocrog 


how much? how 


magnitude 


roaogEs 


OTroaog, as 


many ? 




roffovrog, so great 




ttoIoq, of what 


7roLOQ, of any 


rolog 


olog 


quality ? 


quality 


roiogSe 

TOiovrog, of such 
a quality 


oTtoiog^ as 


7r^X//:oc, how old 1 


TrrfkiKoe, of a 


T7]\lKOg 


ijXiKog 




certain age 


TrjXiKogSe 


bnrikiKog, 






rrjXiKovrog, so old 


as 



Note 1. Demonstratives in ovrog conform to the declension of 
ovrog (see § 58.), except that, besides the termination o, they have 
also ov in the neutr. ; e. g. roaovrog, roaavrr), roaovro (v), gen. 
roaovTOv, roaavrr^g, toctovtov, &c. 

Note 2. Besides these usual correlatives there are also others, 
which occur, however, only in simple forms, and do not complete 
the full series ; e. g. 7roca.7r6g, whence sprung ? dWoBcnrog, from 
another country, biroda^og, whence, 



190 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 60. 
LENGTHENED FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

1. To render still more prominent the exposi- 
tory power of demonstratives, the Greeks append 
to them an i, which then always bears the acute 
accent, and is long by nature, and before which 
every short vowel is rejected ; e. g. ovroal, avTr\i 9 
tovtI (hicce, haecce, hocce), this ; so also oSt 
(from o&), sKuvovL (from Uuvoq), togovtovI (from to- 
govtoq), &c. 

2. For the same purpose the enclitic mp is 
annexed to relatives ; e« g. cWsp, the very same 
who ; ol6<j7n-p, exactly of which description ; &c. 

3. Moreover, to relatives are also annexed ovv 
and &i or c^ore, which, like the Latin cunque and 
the English ever, imply the extension of the rela- 
tive meaning to all possible cases, wherein we 
are to observe that such appendages are not 
usual in the simple pronoun oq, but only in the 
compound oqnq, and in the correlatives ; e. g. 
oaTiqovv, o<j7t<$riTroTz, whoever, whosoever. 



THE VERB 191 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE VERB ACCORDING TO ALL ITS PARTS, 

§ 61. (61, 62,63.) 
Idea and Properties of the Verb. 

1. A verb (pvpa) expresses the existence of an 
object in a certain relation or condition, (see, 
§ 23, 1.) Hence it includes in itself two ideas : 
namely, the idea of a condition, or generally of a 
property ; and the idea of being, by which the pro- 
perty is represented as possessed by an object. 

2. According to this double idea of a verb its 
peculiarities are determined, namely, the genus or 
kind according to the idea of property, and the 
modes and tenses according to that of being. 

3. By the attributed property an object ap- 
pears as existing in a certain relation, which in 
general may be of a three-fold nature ; thus, the 
property either indicates an object as active and 
operant, or as subject to an operation (passive), or as 
existing in a condition which is independent, i. e. 
is not acted upon externally. According as a 
predicate is comprehended in one or another of 
these kinds of relation, we ascribe to it a parti- 
cular genus, and hence arise three genera of the 
verb, namely, active (he praises), passive (he is 

6 



192 ETYMOLOGY. 

praised), and neuter or intransitive (he lives). But 
when an object is assigned actively, we must 
further distinguish whether its action be directed 
to another object or to itself; and thus the active 
genus is resolved into two subdivisions, namely, 
the transitive (he praises another), and the reflexive 
(he praises himself). For these different genera 
the verb has also different forms, although usually 
only for the two principal kinds, namely, the 
active and passive, the reflexive being denoted by 
the active form with the addition of the reflexive 
'pronoun, and the neuter taking sometimes the 
form of the active and sometimes that of the 
passive. The Greeks, however, designate the 
reflexive, partially at least, by a particular form, 
denominated the middle, and nearly allied to the 
passive ; wherefore in the Greek language we dis- 
tinguish three forms of verbs, the active, pas- 
sive, and middle. 

4. When the property is brought into con- 
nection with an object by the idea of being, it is 
then declared either that it actually exists in it, 
or that its presence in the object is possible, or, 
lastly, that it is necessary. These three relations 
are expressed by the modes, of which there are 
usually three, the indicative, conjunctive, and im- 
perative. In the case of possibility, a further dis- 
tinction is to be regarded, whether the property 
belong to the object under certain circumstances 
and conditions, or whether it be merely generally 
conceivable in the same. This distinction also 
the Greeks express by particular forms, using 



THE VERB. H>3 

for the first case the conjunctive, and for the last 
the optative, as the appropriate mode. 

Note 1 . Among the peculiarities of the verb are besides to 
be remarked the infinitive, which expresses the idea of the 
verb absolutely, and therefore cannot be considered as a real 
mode ; and the participle, whose idea has been explained above, 
§ ?A. 2. 

5. As every thing which exists and takes 
place can only be conceived by us with re- 
ference to time, the verb, therefore, assumes 
forms, called tenses, to indicate the distinction of 
different times. Now in time we distinguish 
three divisions, the past, present, and future. 
Hence arise also three tenses, the past, present, 
and future. For the accurate narration, however, 
of past occurrences, and for the determination of 
their connection and succession, one single tense 
is not sufficient and we therefore express the 
past by several tenses, namely, the perfect, pin- 
perfect, imperfect, and, in Greek, also the aorist. 
The whole of these tenses are resolved with re- 
spect to signification, and form into two classes : 

(a) into the principal tenses : present, perfect, and 
future. 

(b) into the historical (called also subordinate) 
tenses ; imperfect, pluperfect, aorist. 

Note 1. Several tenses in Greek have a double form, namely, 
the aorist and future universally, and the perfect and pluperfect 
of the active, so that in conjugation we find an aor. 1. and 2. a 
fut. 1. and 2. &c, and in the passive also a fut. 3., whose signifi- 
cation coincides with the Jut. perfect of the Latins. But as the 
distinction of these chiefly consists in form, mention can be 
made only of one aorist, &c. in a classification of the tenses l 



o 



194 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 2, An accurate elucidation of the peculiar import of the 
different modes and tenses can only be given in the Syntax, in 
discussing the application of these forms. 



FORMATION OF VERBS, 

§ 62. (64.) 

Conjugation. 

1. To derive and form all the existing modifi- 
cations of a verb is called to conjugate. This is 
done by the annexation and change of certain 
terminations, made use of to denote the different 
tenses, modes, numbers, and persons. 

2. These terminations always remain essen- 
tially the same, however the verbs may differ 
to which they are annexed. But the manner in 
which they are united into one whole with the 
primitive form of the verb is different, according 
to the different nature of that primitive form 
itself, and hence we distinguish a plurality of 
conjugations. 

3. In Greek the union of terminations with the 
primitive form of the verb takes place in a two- 
fold manner ; or, which is the same thing, there 
are in Greek two conjugations, whereof one, which, 
from its personal termination, is called the conju- 
gation w 9 connects its personal terminations to the 
primitive form of the verb by means of a vowel ; and 
the other, which, likewise, from the termination 
of its present, is called the conjugation pi* con- 
nects them to it immediately. 



CONSTITUENT PARTS OF VERBAL FORMS. 105 

4. The conjugation w predominates ; because 
by far the greater number of Greek verbs are 
formed according to it, and because it is even 
used for the completion of the conjugation <ui, 
which has only three peculiar tenses. But al- 
though few verbs admit a thorough formation in 
Hi, yet many have single forms analogous to it 
(particularly the aor. 2. act.) ; and even in the 
common conjugation w we find (in the aor. 2. pass.) 
indubitable traces of a mixture of the two kinds 
of conjugation. Hence the conjugation w is con- 
sidered as the foundation of Greek conjugations ; 
and what is laid down in the sequel, respecting 
the terminations and root, must be understood 
with reference to it alone. 



§ 63. 
THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF VERBAL FORMS, 

1. In every verbal form we distinguish two 
parts, of which it is composed : (a) the root of the 
verb, and (b) the termination of the verbal form. 
The perfect and historical tenses add a third con- 
stituent part, namely, the augment. 

2. Hence general rules for the formation of 
verbs are assigned in three sections; of which 
the first treats of terminations and their annexa- 
tion ; the second, of the augment ; and the third, 
of the root and the mode of its discovery. 

o 2 



196 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Note. The order here followed appears the most expedients 
because in the rules for finding the root, and for the changes 
which this root undergoes in annexing the terminations, it en- 
ables the learner to complete a correct form equally for every 
tense. 



§ 64. (66.) 



VERBAL TERMINATIONS, AND THEIR ANNEX- 
ATION TO THE ROOT. 

1. Verbal terminations are divided into three 
kinds— temporal, personal, and modal. But, accord- 
ing to their external peculiarity, all verbal termi- 
nations again resolve themselves into two classes, 
namely, the active and passive, as those tenses 
which are used exclusively in a middle sense have 
all their variations in common with the passive. 

2. Temporal terminations are the following :— 
Active. Middle. Passive. 



Pres, 


CO 




Ojuai 




Impf. 


ov 




o\xi\v 




Perf. 
Plusqpf 


ci, Ka 

. UV f KtlV 




fiat 




Fut. 1. 


au) 


GOfxai 




%i)<j0fxai 


Aor. 1. 


era 


aa^.r\v 




%T}V 


Fut. 2. 


w (&0 


ovfxai 




rivofiat 


Aor. 2. 


ov 


OjUTJV 




7]V 



3. From comparing together, in the subjoined 
table, (tab. 1.) the compound terminations of dif- 
ferent tenses and modes, the following remarks 
suggest themselves : 



(To face page 11)6.] 



YjTOV, 1)Tb)V 

i]Tt, i}rwaav 



i]vau 



-H>1*. C V 



gdl. evroc, acrr/c, 
kvroc. 



r. of the participle is purely accidental, as is clear from the perf., where 

Second and third person sing., and in the third person plur., is much 
j plur. eiav. 
and in the conjugation p. The same is particularly common in the 

end of the verbal root, the collision of three consonants would occasion 
; the Attics, on the contrary, making choice of compounds with the 
rf. pass, can only be formed by a composition of this kind ; e. g. conj. 

n these terminations are annexed to the root by means of a connective 
pe second person; whence eat, contr. y, and Att. ti, which in particular 
rariable rejection of <r. 
he third pers. dual. 



TABLE 1. 

Modal and Personal Terminations of Verbs 
ACTIVE. 



TENSES. 


NUMBERS. 


MODES. 








INDICATIVE. 


CONJUNCTIVE. 


OPTATIVE. IMPERATIVE. 


INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Present and Future. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 


to, tic, a 


". Tic, ti 


otut, oic, ot — e, 1™ 

01TOV, OIT1JV E70V, ETEOU 

oiuev, oite, otev ! ete, Eraio-an, and 


„ 


an', oucra, oi» 
gen. oi'roe, oum/e, 


Imperfect and Aorist 2. 


Dual. 
Plural. 


Z,ir b 


Aorist 2. as the Present. 

1 1 


aorist 2. 


aorist 2. 


Perfect 1 and 2. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 


a, ac, E 




As in the Present. 




«~ 


tie, via, oe 
gen. otoc, viae, 


Aorist 1. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 


l,, ir \r. 


As in the Present. 


atiu, ate, a* T 

alrov, atrnv 

atttEv, atrt, atEi» 


tire, arturrai. and 




ae, aim, an 

gen. avToe, ao-nc. 


Plusquamperf. 1 and 2. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 


civ, tie, ii 

usually mav 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


Future 2. 


Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 


UTOV, flrov 


wanting. 


"' o'frov, ot'rnv 


wanting. 




gen. ouvroe, outnic, 




OUUEV, CITE, JOUCTI 




o,„sv, O.TE, ottw 


OVVTOS. 



PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 



Singula; 

Dual. 

Plural. 



see Note ^. 



vcav and 
.9c. f 



utnoe, tltVI), /1EVOV. 



Plusquamperfect. 



.' Iin ;ukn 

Dual. 

Plural. 



Present and Future. 



Dual. 

Plural. 



V ||, Ecr9<0 
<r9oi., otSiok 
„9e, Etr9iocr, 



Imperf. and Aor. 2. Mid. 



; n"'ulay 

Dual. 

Plural. 



2 middle, as in the present. 



Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 



in the present. 



;u'jUt9a, atff9t, 



„t,9„v, ao9tov 
aa%, uoSwaav and 
aoStov H 



;mo- u ],, 

Dual. 
Plural. 



OVfl&i . 



ttirSov, t^ov 



otutSov, oia9ov, otrj9n 
oi'tttSa, OIO"9e, OIVTO 



Aorists of the Passive. 



Singular. 

Dual. 

Plural. 



U'ror, fl'ir, 



• In Attic the dissyllabic and 
iliis coincidence does not take plat 

I !:. hI- ■ this u|H;itive termination 



of the Sd pers. plur. imperat. is more usual. Its coincide 



full-sounding termination of the Sd pers. plur. imperat. is more usual. Its coincidence Wltr. the gen. plur. of the participle ispurely accidental, as is clear from ft. !■"<., w\m 

I'tion «m. use is made also of the termination t,«, which indeed seldom occurs in the first person, hut in the second and third person sing., and in the Ihiru person plur.', i. much 

*1 „'; fZZ £ £ I "!, ' I, 1 , , " , i^.KESft*b £E ~ (se?, *ft £d "ft. -Ration /■- ^ same is particular,, common in „,= 

nptajfof the aSSm-" ». ^■"^^jLJS^yS^'Sf^SiSi with a vowe,. .fa consonant stand at the end of the verba, root, ft, 

larni for - 



native ot uie »»■» — .«•" > , • -■ - >• rl , lallu ,| unchanged 

(j The terminations rra, and .to can on - ^ suosmuting a 

..ri-l.t li.irsl.iii- ■" i "'" ' , , , ., ., .,., 

participle and the .trill I ( '"' a) "°" ™" W " F " " ™* ""*'"" 

«™W"'t ('/. «") "■ opt. rt-.^fit. '':'.'""■■ , llt properly to be cm and «o, 

" ^£%£^*A Phifunperat., which is very ,Vc,ue„„y, and with Epic writers a,,,.,., us 



the case in the perf. and pluperf. 



Uiwon of three consonants would t 

-irvfvrm; the Attics, on the contrary, in -Uiuir ''!'" l n 

dopt. perf. pass, can only be formed by a I p'oa a ol tl 



aid be icm in die second person; 
»«.., with the invariable rejecti - 

svfectly resembles the thM pi i 



hi, h m pattiatilui 



VERBAL TERMINATIONS. 197 

(1) All the tenses can be reduced to common and 
simple primitive terminations of the active and passive 
forms, wherein the historical and principal tenses 
in certain persons are clearly distinguished from 
each other. In the passive the terminations of the 
perf. and plupf. furnish the simple primitive form 
for both classes of tenses ; but of the active the 
following are the primitive terminations : 



Principal tenses. 


Historical tenses. 


I. 2. 3. 


1. 2. 3. 


Sing. — g — 


_ c _ 


Dual,/ TOV TOV 

Plur.S **" tz <n(v) 


7 TOV TTJV 

J re v Or aav 



(2) These primitive terminations in the whole 
of the active, and in most of the passive tenses, 
are annexed to the root by means of a connective 
vowel, which is different in different tenses, and, 
as may be learnt from the table, varies even in 
single persons. In the 1st and 3d pers. sing. act. 
this vowel alone constitutes the termination, al- 
though in such a manner as to be increased into a 
long sound in the pres. and fut. 

(3) The distinction of the two classes of tenses 
appears in the active form only in the 3d pers. 
dual, which for the principal tenses has tov, for 
the historical tv\v ; and in the 3d pers. plur., which 
terminates respectively in <n (v) and v. This dis- 
tinction is more striking and general in the pas- 
sive, where, besides the 3d pers. dual and plur., 
the whole of the sing, receives for each class a 
different formation, 



198 ETYMOLOGY. 

(4) In respect to terminations, the conjunct, 
corresponds with the principal tenses, and has this 
peculiarity, that it always lengthens the connec- 
tive vowel, and therefore for o and ov adopts an w, 
for e an ifc and for k an y. The historical, on the 
contrary, are followed by the optative, of which o, 
with an t added, is always the connective vowel. 

(5) The dual and plur. have in the active the 
same, but in the passive different terminations for 
the first person. 



Prefixing the Augment, 

§ 65. (67.) 

AUGMENT IN GENERAL. 

1. The addition which in some verbal forms is 
prefixed to the beginning of the root is called an 
augment. 

2. With respect to its nature, the augment 
must be distinguished into two kinds t (1) the 
augment of the perfect, which appears in its proper 
form only in verbs beginning with a consonant, 
and consists in the repetition of this consonant 
with an e added, whence it is also called reduplica- 
tion; (2) the augment of the historical tenses, formed 
by simply prefixing an c. 

3. Besides this, another distinction of the aug- 
ment is to be observed, which depends upon the 



SYLLABIC AUGMENT— REDUPLICATION. 199 

nature of the beginning of verbal roots : thus, if 
the root begins with a consonant, the prefixed £ 
forms a syllable of itself, and is called a syllabic 
augment; if, on the contrary, it begins with a 
vowel, then the e is contracted with this vowel, 
and thereby increases its quantity, whence we 
say that such verbs receive a temporal augment. 

4. The augment of the perfect enters also into 
the plupf. and fut. 3. and is retained through all 
the modes, together with the infinitive and parti- 
ciple. The augment of the historical tenses, on 
the contrary, remains only in the indicative. 



$$66. (68.) 

SYLLABIC AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION IN 
THE PERFECT. 

1. Verbs whose root begins with a consonant 
receive in the historical tenses a syllabic augment, 
and in the perf. a reduplication ; e. g. 

Xc-ywjimpf. i-Xeyov, perf. Xi-Xz^a, plupf. I-Xc-Xe^av 
<pi\zu) — k-<pi\zov — 7r£-<j)i\r)Ka* — £-7T£-</>iXri/C£ev. 

2. From this general rule are to be observed 
the following exceptions : 

(a) If the root begins with a double consonant, 

* For (jjEifilXr^Ka, according to § 15. D, 



200 ETYMOLOGY. 

or with two consonants which are not a mute 
and liquid, then a only is prefixed in the perf. and 
plupf. ; e.g. 

^a\\(jj, perf. i-\pa\ica, pllipf. £-^aA/cav 



Zevou) 


• — z-^vtoKa 


— 


£-$£VWfC£lV 


£?]Aoaj 


— £-foAw/ca 


— 


e-fyjXwiceiv 


CFTTiiptJ 


— z-arrapica 


■ — 


k-Girapicuv. 




On the contrary : 




'pa<pG) 


— yz-ypafya 


— 


z-yzypatyuv 



Note 1. The perfect of }.ivdb) (I remind), fie/ivri/jLai, is formed 
by adding the reduplication, and of ktclo/jlcu (I acquire) the Attic 
perf. is KEXTrifJLai : but the lonians form EKrrjfxca in the regular 
manner. 

Note 2. Verbs, whose root begins with yv, take no redupli- 
cation ; e. g. eyvojpKTfiai, perf. pass, of yvwpi£io. Also those be- 
ginning with yX usually reject reduplication, together with those 
with fiX, except fiXcurroj (I hurt), perf. pass. /3£/3\a^tjuat. 

(b) Verbal roots beginning with p are also in- 
capable of reduplication ; but the p is always 
doubled in them after prefixing the augment; 

€, g. paiTTiO, imperf. eppairrov, perf. Eppa<j>a, plupf. 
sppa(j>eiv. 

Note S. The only example of reduplication in p occurs in the 
Homeric f>epv7ru)fiiva } from pvTrow. 

(c) The following verbs beginning with X re- 
ceive instead of reduplication the syllable a in the 
perf., which remains unchanged in the plupf. : 

Xcififidvu) (I take), perf. el-X^a, plupf. d-X^eiv 

in the pass. — tt-Xiy/z/iae — ei-Xrjfifiijv 
Xayxawo (I obtain by lot), — e t-A*?x a — £6-X>?x £tJ/ 
Xiyw (I gather), — ti-Xoxa — fi-Xdx"" 

in the pass. — el-Xeyfiat — el-XeyfiTjy* 



TEMP. AUGMENT— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 201 

According to the same analogy are formed 
upnKa (I have said), from 'PEQ, and u^aprai (it is 
determined by fate), from jueipoimi. 

(d) The verbs |3ouXo/uat (I am willing), c&va^cu (I 
am able), and juc'XXw (I am about), are augmented 
by 1? instead of e, particularly in the Attic dialect ; 
e. g. impf. tfiovXopriv and r)j3ovX6juY}v — eBwajuriv and 

rj^vvafiriv — fueXAov and rJ^cXXov, &C. 

Note 4. In the Epic dialect the aor. 2. also sometimes receives 
a reduplication, which it then retains through all the forms ; e. g. 
XtkdSovTQ, aor. 2. from \av$dvofxai t inf. \a\a$icr$ai. 



§ 67. (68.) 
TEMPORAL AUGMENT.— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 

1. When a verbal root begins with a vowel or 
diphthong, the prefixed e is contracted with it into 
one sound, but so that the original sound belong- 
ing to the root is retained as much as possible in 
the contraction. This, from the reason assigned 
§ 65. 3., is called a temporal augment, and is the 
same in the historical tenses and in the perfect. 

2. As every vowel or diphthong which may 
stand at the beginning of a root is not capable of 
admitting the augment, we shall therefore, for 
easier inspection, divide them into three classes. 

(a) the vowels a, £ , , the diphthongs <u and o h 



ct 


into 


7) * 7/ 


• g- 


ayu), 


tin 


•— 


V 


* 


— 


alpioj 


€ 


— 


V 






eXtti^u) 


9 


T- 


(a 


}: 




ofxiXioj 


OL 


— 


O) 




OlKTl^it) 



202 ETYMOLOGY. 

and the doubtfuls t and v, when short, are inva- 
riably changed, namely : 

impf. i\yov perf. i\ya perf. p. l\y\iai 
— ■ fjpeov — - rjpriKa — • fjprjfjiai 

— i\\Tu£ov •= qXiTLKa 
— — fjjfilXeov • — wfiiXrjKa 

h)KTl%OV ! (pKTlKCl 

I -— t 7 — - IKETEVW ■= — ■ tKET£VOV } aOr. IKETEVffa 

0> — > O v — 

t; — v } — {>/3pt£w — vfipi^oVi pass. vfipiafiau 

Exceptions : (1) The following verbs beginning 
with e, on prefixing the augment, take the diph- 
thong a instead of the usual contraction into v : 
tan) (I let), £$(t> and £&&*> (I am wont), IX/d^w (I 
roll), zXtao and eA/cuw (I draw), ''EAQ (I take, root 
to the aor. 2. u\ov, aXoji^v), «rw (I am occupied), 

tirofiai (I follow), zpya'Cofxai (I WOl'k), sottw and £07ri)£w 

(I creep), wnaw (I entertain), and £x w (I have). 
(2) Verbs that begin with a and ot, and have an- 
other vowel after these sounds, remain without the 
augment; e. g. a-npi, 3d pers. impf. a^ro. — alw, 
impf. alov. — oiatciiby, impf. olaKilov, Except the 
verbs aa'gw (I sing), and oUpai (I suppose), which 
always admit the regular augment ; e. g. impf 

i;a$OV, li)6fJLK]V t 

Note 1. Some other verbs beginning with ol also admit the 
augment, as, e. g. oltcovpiio, olvoio, &c. 

(b) The diphthong av, followed by a consonant, 
is changed into w on receiving the augment ; but, 

* The Dorians also in this instance retain long a instead of tj s 
€. g. dyov for y\yov. 



TEMP. AUGMENT— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 203 

if followed by a vowel, it receives no augment. The 
diphthong zv, which also becomes rjv on the acces- 
sion of the augment, generally remains unaug- 
mented. 

Examples : 

av'£av(*), impf. rjvZavov, perf. T]v^r]Ka 

avaivu) — — avaivov 

iv^ofxat < — - rjv^ofiirjv and zvyopnqv 

ZVplGKlO YIVpKTKOV and EVpiGKOV, pf. ZVpriKtt. 

(c) Verbs whose root begins with v, w, se, ov, 
and with a long I or v, suffer no augmentation. 
The only exception to be observed from this rule 
is uKa'Ca) (I conjecture), to which the Attics some- 
times join an augment, whereby a is changed 
into y ; e. g. impf. uko£ov and yicalov, perf. pass. 

ilKCKTfiai and yKUGfiai. 

Note 2. The following verbs beginning with vowels take the 
syllabic augment : 

wS-eco (I push), impf. euSovv, pf. pass, ewtrfiat 

o)v£ofj,ai (I buy), — e(i)povfjir}v — kd)vr\\xon. 

ovpeio (I urine), — eovpovv pf. eovpr}Ka 

ayvvjii (I break), aor. 1. ea£a, — edya 

aXivKOjjiai (I am caught), aor. 2. edXojv — kdkwica 

avSdvoj (I please), — 'iahov. 

The same analogy is followed by the irregular 
perf. ioitca (I appear, from ukoS), io\7ra (I hope, from 
£A7rw), and k'ooya (I do, from the obsolete root^yw), 
which have this peculiarity also, that they admit 
in the plupf. a new augmentation of the o ; thus, 
£w/cap, £wX7rav, twpyeiv. This latter kind of aug- 
ment occurs also in aopraZu (I celebrate), impf. 



204 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 3. The verbs bpaco (I see), and avoiyio (I open), take 
both the temporal and syllabic augments at the same time ; thus, 
impf. kojpwv, aviwyov, aor. 1. dvi&lfc, pf. IwpctKct, dyeyxa, &c. 

3. According to the above (1) assigned rule, in 
verbs of this kind the augment of the perfect and 
historical tenses is the same, and therefore they 
do not admit of a proper reduplication. Never- 
theless, a certain number of verbs, whose root 
begins with a, or s or o, receive in their perf. and 
plupf. a peculiar kind of increase, called the Attic 
reduplication, which consists in prefixing to the 
temporal augment the first vowel of the root, to- 
gether with the next succeeding consonant. In 
this case the plupf. has frequently no particular 
augment. 

Examples : 

uyupis), pf. (jiyepKa) ayfiytpxa, pass, ayrjyepjuiai 

ifX£(x> - — (jlfAZKCt) £jU1tyl£/Ca plupf. tfXt]fX£KUV 

opvTTU) — (wpuv^a) opwpvy^a — opojpvytiv. 

4. When forms from polysyllabic roots have 
this Attic reduplication, the long vowel in the 
penultimate syllable is usually shortened ; e. g. 

akzitytO) pf. a\r}Xi(pa f pf. pass. a\f)\ip,fiai. — clkovcj, pf. 

ktcwoa.— 'EAEY6Q, pf. cXtjXvSo, &c. Yet this 
shortening does not obtain invariably, as appears 
from kpripuica, perf. of spuSw, and similar forms. 

Note 4. The Attic, like the common reduplication, (see §66. 
Note 4.) is sometimes prefixed in the Epic dialect to the aor. 2., 
although with this distinction, that in such aorists the augment is 
added to the reduplication ; e.g. i/papoi', aor. 2. of apw— oKoKkov 



PARTICULARITIES, &c. 205 

(without augment), from the obsolete root 'AAKfl. This Attic 
reduplication in the aor. 2. has been retained by the verb ayw 
even in the common language ; e. g. aor. 2. r/yayov, conj. aya'yw, 
inf. dydyetv. 

Note 5. It must not be concluded from the name, that the 
Attic reduplication belongs exclusively or principally to the Attic 
dialect. On the contrary, it is found used in the old Epic ; and 
many forms, possessing this reduplication, exist only in the older 
and poetic language, and are never used by the Attics. 



§ 68. (69.)] 

PARTICULARITIES IN THE USE AND NEGLECT 
OF THE AUGMENT. 

1. What has been said in the preceding sections, 
respecting the augment, holds of simple verbs, 
and is confined to its use in the common lan- 
guage. Towards a complete discussion of this 
doctrine it is requisite also to give the necessary 
information on the augment in compound verbs, 
and on the freedom of poetic language in its 
adoption or neglect. 

I. Augment in Compound Verbs. 

(1) In verbs which are compounded with pre- 
positions the augment enters between the prepo- 
sition and the root, and the short final vowel of 
the preposition is rejected, except in ir^i and tt^o, 
which retain the vowel before the augment ; e.g. 



206 ETYMOLOGY. 

irpOQ-(j>£p(t). illipf. 7rpOQ-£-(j)£pOl> 

Gv\-\eyto — <jvv-£-\eyov 

a7ro-7T£jU7ra> - — a7r-£-7T£/i7roi> 

7raoa-j3aXX(t> — 7rap-£-|3aXXov ? pf. 7rapa-j3£-j3X??^a 

7T£oe-j3aXXa> — • 7T£pi-£-/3aXXov — 7T£pl-j3£-j3X»J/Ca 

7rpo-7re(jLTT(jj • — Trpo-k-Tr£f.iiTQv f usually with cra- 

SIS 7rpovir£fjnrov. 

Note 1. In all the adduced examples, it is evident that the 
preposition is compounded with a simple verb ; and as the verb 
retains its idea in composition, and merely receives an accessory 
relation from its union with the preposition, it is natural that in 
placing the augment the verb should be formed independently, 
and that to the verb so formed the preposition should be added 
unchanged. From this must be distinguished the other case 
where independent verbs are formed from nouns compounded 
with prepositions. Here the second part of the compound is not 
an independent verb, and therefore cannot properly take an aug- 
ment, which should rather be joined to the entire, and, with re- 
spect to signification, indivisible verb, in the usual manner ; con- 
sequently at the beginning. Yet this obtains only in few cases ; 

dvriciKEd) (from dvTiBiKOs), impf. rivridiKOvv 
ijnrecov (from epireBoe) — i)fX7re^ovv 

7cpooin La'Cofxa t (from irpooifx 10 *') • — > ETrpooLf,ua^6jXY]y. 
While most verbs so formed, nevertheless, take the augment 
in the middle ; e. g. 

Eiri$v[i£b> (from £tt/ and S'vjlioc), impf. etteS-vl-iow 
kyKU)fiLa£u> (from kyKiojiiov) — £veK<ofria%gy 

7rpo(f>rirEV(i) (from Trpofiirqg) - — Trpoefo'irevov. 

The same is observed in iy^eipeoj, eue^pevoj, fVt-^cevw (from 
ettit^Mq), airoXoyEU), Tcpo^EVEw, avvEpyEio, viro7rTEt/(t), &c. all of 
which have the augment in the middle, although they are not de- 
rived from simple verbs, but evidently from nouns. 

Note 2. On the contrary, some compounds, formed by the 
union of a preposition with a simple verb, prefix their augment 
to the preposition. These are particularly such as are unusual 
in the common language as simple verbs ; e. g. 

K-a-^v^w (I sleep), impf. ekcl^ev^op 

KaSrjfiaL (I sit), — eKaSrfjftfly 

Ka^i^oi (I set down), —- sicd$i£ev 

dfx<f>Urrv^i (I clothe), aor. jjpQieffa. 

4 



PARTICULARITIES, &c. 207 

Yet even this is not an universal rule, but liable to many ex- 
ceptions ; thus, e. g. besides EKaSevcov, KaSrjvdov is also used, 
and dtyiKveofxai (I come), aVavraw (I meet), e^erd^o) (I examine), 
are invariably augmented in the middle, although the simple 
forms drrdct) and erdi^io never occur. 

Note 3. The following verbs compounded with prepositions 
receive a double augment, one in the root, the other in the pre- 
position : 

clvExo}xai (I endure), impf. yvetxoiJirjv, aor. 2. l]VE(yyj>n.r)v 

dvop&oio (I erect), — i]viop%ovv, aor. 1. r)viop$(oaa 

kvoxkiu) (I molest), — ■ rjyoj^ovr, pf. r/^w'^Xi/fca 

Trapoiveo) (I rage), - — kirapiovovi', pf. 7rs7rapo)yr]tca. 

Besides the adduced examples, this usage occurs, although 
not invariably, in some other verbs. 

Note 4. The verbs ckcuraw (I prescribe a mode of life), dtaxo- 
via (I minister), and a'/x^io-/3r/r£w (I doubt), are treated as com- 
pound verbs with respect to the augment, although they are only 
apparently and not really compounded with prepositions. They 
sometimes also present a double augment, like those adduced in 
the preceding note ; e. g. 

diaLrdo), impf, cirjrwv and edirfruv 

Bicucoveoj — hLr\Kovovv and e^ltikovovVi pf. %e§ir\K6vriKci 

dfJKJHafirjTiQ) — ?;/x0£cr/3>/rov^. 

(2) Verbs compounded with *u and <W, if the 
root of the simple verb begins with a consonant, 
or with a sound not capable of an augment, place 
the augment before zv and <W ; but if the root 
begins with a vowel which usually admits a tem- 
poral augment, this vowel receives it also in the 
composition ; e. g. 

£vtw£zid (I am fortunate), aor. 1. -nvTv^no-a 

evspyzTtw (I befriend), — ■ evripyhtiaa 

SvQTvyku (I am unfortunate), — k§vQTvyj\(m 

SvqapEGTZu (I displease), impf. SvgiipEaTOvv 

&V£W7T£a> (I shame), — sSvcwttovv. 



208 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note 5. Many verbs compounded with ev, which, according t& 
the above rule, should receive the augment in ev, have no aug- 
ment ; e, g. ev(s)\ov}iaL (I feast), impf. evej^ovfxrjv. 

(3) Verbs compounded with a privative, and 
with nouns, are augmented at the beginning ; 



e.g. 



SsivoTraSsbJ, impf. zSeivoTTa'Sovv 
tupoovEOJ — ' iifpovovv 

XoyoTTOiko — £Xoyo7roiouv. 

1 1 . Neglect of the A ugment. 

(1) Like the augment of the perfect, (see § 65, 
4.) the Epic reduplication of the aor. 2., where 
it occurs, (see § 66. Note 4., and § 67. Note 4.) is 
retained unchanged through all the forms. The 
augment of the aorist, on the contrary, remains 
only in the indicative; e. g. irv^a, inf. rv\pai, opt. 
Ttyaiim, part, rtyaq* Of the impf. and plupf. it is 
to be understood that they can possess no form 
besides the indicative. 

(2) The augment is frequently omitted in the 
indicative also of the historical tenses. The par- 
ticular cases in which this omission is allowed, or 
usual, are determined according to the following- 
rules : 

(a) the reduplication can never be omitted. 

(b) the syllabic augment is very frequently re- 
jected from the pluperfect, not only in the Ionic 
dialect and the poets, but even in the common 
language ; with the imperfect and aorist, on the 
contrary, such omission is a mere poetic license, 
used whenever requisite to the verse by the Epic, 



ROOT AND CHARACTERISTIC OF VERBS. 209 

but only seldom by the Attic poets ; while in prose 
this augment is always retained. 

Note. 6. The imperfect txPW which is frequently used with- 
out the augment, \P^ y > even m P rosa i c writers, constitutes the 
only exception to this rule. 

(c) The temporal augment can be omitted not 
only by Epic writers and in poetry generally, but 
also in Ionic prose. The lonians allow themselves 
its omission even in the perfect ; e. g. oik£u> (I in- 
habit), pf. pass. wKrifxai and oiicofiai. 

Note 7. Except from this the forms tfXSor and i]\v$ov (aoi 
to tp^o/iat), which never occur without the augment. 



Of the Root, and its Union with Terminations. 

§ 69. (65.) 
ROOT AND CHARACTERISTIC OF VERBS. 

1. The root of a verb is its primitive form, i. e. 
the syllable, or syllables, from which, by the ad- 
dition of different terminations (and of the aug- 
ment), every verbal form is produced. 

2. The last letter of the root is called the cha- 
racteristic (£. e. the distinguishing letter) of a verb, 
because its quality directs all the changes which 
take place in the union of the root with the termi- 
nation, and according to which the proper conju- 
gation of each verb is determined. 

p 



210 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 70. (65.) 
DISCOVERY OF THE ROOT. 

1 . The root of a verb is found by taking away 
from a given verbal form the termination, and, if it 
possesses one, the augment. And, since the pre- 
sent is usually adduced as the principal form of a 
verb, and its termination is perfectly simple, the 
easiest method of discovering the root is to cut off 
the termination w from the first person of the pre- 
sent. Thus, e. g. of the verbs r^tjSw, \eya), ^aw, 
vEfAto, the roots are rpt/3, Xcy, <^a, vtfi. 

2. But in most Greek verbs this process is not 
sufficient for finding the original or pure root, and 
another radical form, generally more simple than 
in the present, is developed in the analyzation of 
the remaining tenses. 

3. This difference of roots discovered in the ana- 
lysis of several tenses of one and the same verb 
consists either in the mere change of vowels (con- 
cerning which the necessary information is given 
below, § 71. 5. c, to the end, and § 73 a .), or in 
additions by which the root of the present is in- 
creased. The former is the case in almost all mono- 
syllabic roots, having a diphthong compounded 
with i ; the latter in all those wherein the termi- 
nation of the present is preceded by the double 
consonant t or by two consonants which are not 
a mute and liquid. 



DISCOVERY OF THE ROOT. 211 

4. All such verbs with more than one root 
should properly be ranked in the class of irregu- 
lars. But as the number of irregular verbs, which 
is already considerable, would be increased be- 
yond measure by such an arrangement, all those 
are classed among regular verbs whose present 
root has undergone a change so definite that the 
original or pure root can be accurately deter- 
mined by it according to certain rules. Hereto 
belong the following classes of verbs : 

(a) verbs whose characteristic in the present is 
itt. In these the r is a strengthening addition, 
and their true characteristic is one of the P 
sounds, usually k, more rarely |3 or $ (*) ; e. g. 

Present : tvtttu) (I beat), Kp{nrru) (I conceal), paimo (I sew). 
Root: TYIK2 KPYB& 'PA<M2. 

Note 1 . In those verbs also, whose characteristic in the present 
is kt } r forms a strengthening addition, their pure characteristic 
being k. But, as other changes likewise occur in them, they are 
given in the list of irregular verbs. 

(b) most verbs, whose present root terminates 
in aa or tt, have usually y, more rarely x or K > f° r 
their pure characteristic ; e. g. 

Present : irpdrrau) (I do), typiaaio (I shudder), Trrvaau (I fold). 
Root: nPAra fcPIKO ITTYXft. 

Note 2. In some verbs of this kind the pure characteristic is a 
T sound, d or 3-, or r. Such are ftXi-ru) (I cut honey- combs), 
ftpdcrau) (I shake), ep£<j<roj (I row), 7raWw (I sprinkle), 7r\aWw 
(I form), -kt'kjow (I pound) ; besides the purely poetic Ifidrraio (I 
scourge), Kopvaato (I arm), Xevvffw (I see), Xiaaof-im (I suppli- 

* The reason of the change of ft and 9 into ar, when followed 
by r, see in § 15. B. 

p2 



212 ETYMOLOGY. 

cate). From ctyvaab) (I draw) is formed the fut. ctyv|<u, but the 
aor. T. ijcpvaa, with the Epic writers tfcpvaaa ; and from vdaaio (I 
stuff), the fut. vd'fa, pf. pass, vivatrfiai ; whence it is evident that 
these follow both sorts of analogy. 

(c) of verbs, whose present root terminates in 
I, the greatest part have S, others y, for their cha- 
racteristic ; e, g. 

Present : typdfa (I say), bfa (I smell), olfiufa (I wail). 
Root: &FAAQ, 'OA& OI'MQra 

Note 3. To those in fa, which have 5 for the pure charac- 
teristic, belong the many derivatives in dfa and ifa, with the ex- 
ception of the following, which are usual in Epic language, and 
which, although derivative, are, nevertheless, always formed in 
the fut. and remaining tenses with the characteristic y : dXairdfa 
(I sack), Bat fa (I cut in pieces), kvapifa (I plunder), SpvXXifa (I 
produce a discord), peppriplfa (I meditate), 7reXejJiifa (I brandish), 
7roXejj.lfa (I war), arvtyzXlfa (I drive). 

JVote 4. To those in £<*>, whose pure characteristic is a pala- 
tine letter, usually y, belong the verbs denoting sound, as aid fa 
(I groan), dXaXdfa (I raise the battle shout), k-pd£o> (I cry), Kpiofa 
(I croak), olf-tojfa (I wail), oXoXvfa (I scream aloud), arevdfa (I 
sigh), rpifa (I chirp), &c. ; besides {mart fa (I scourge), pvardfa 
(I drag), ora£w (I trickle), <rr/£w (I point), <70u£a> (I boil). 

Note 5. The pure characteristic fluctuates in the following, 
whose derivative forms are according to both analogies ; dp7rdfa 
(I rob), fut. dpTvdffb) and dpTrdfa ; fiaardfa (I carry), fut. fiaardaoj, 
aor. pass. kfiaardy§r)v ; ward fa (I nod), fut. wardato and ^vo-- 
ra£w ; iraifa (I play), fut. 7rait,ovfj.at, aor. 'irraiaa. 

Note 6. Some in 4<o have yy for the pure characteristic, as 
nXdfa (I sound), nXcifa (I wander), aaXirifa (I blow the trum- 
pet), all in the fut. — yfa. 

Note 7. in those tenses of verbs in fa, whose termination 
begins with a, consequently in the fut. and aor. the Doric dialect 
takes a £ ; e.g. tcopifa, fut. tcofiifa ; but, in the remaining tenses, 
verbs whose pure characteristic is S, recover, with few exceptions, 
the usual formation ; e. g. aor. pass. ikofiia^v (not e/co/i/^^^)* 

(d) of verbs, whose characteristic in the pre- 



DIFFERENT CLASSES OF VERBS IN *>. 213 

sent is AX, a simple X forms the pure character- 
istic ; e. g. pres. trreXXw (I send), root 2TEA, 

flit. OTfXw, aOH £OT£lXa. 

5. In all those verbs, whose characteristic in the 
present has been changed, only the present and 
imperfect are formed from the root of the present. 
All the other forms are deduced from the pure 
root, with the unchanged characteristic. 

Note 8. Concerning verbs with the characteristic ttt and with 
gg or tt, it has been observed in general that the former have 
usually 7r, the latter usually y, for the pure characteristic. But 
since, besides tt, both /3 and^, and, besides y, both x an( l K can a ^ s0 
enter as pure characteristics, it is necessary that for every single 
verb of this kind the true characteristic should be definitely as- 
certained. This, however, can only be done by attending to 
kindred words ; thus, e. g. for /3a7rrw(I dip), the substantive (la&r) 
(a dipping) furnishes the true characteristic <j>, &c. Yet, as a 
knowledge of the pure characteristic is only requisite for the 
secondary tenses, in which it occurs unchanged, and as these 
tenses are used in but very few verbs of this kind, which practice 
gradually discovers, such knowledge is therefore in most cases 
of no consequence. In the primary tenses, before annexing the 
termination, the characteristic always experiences a change, 
which equally occurs to all the three P and three G sounds ; 

e. g. TVTTTU) (rOOt TVir), KpVTTTU) (YoQt Kpvfi), pdliTOi (rOOt pCL(f) J flit. 

rv^poj, Kpvxpu), pcixpoj ; pf. TETvtya, KEKavfa, eppaoa : so 7rpd&GU) 
(root 7fpay), (f)pi<Tcroj (root (j>piK) } irrvaGb) (root tjti>x) ; fut. vpd^w, 
typifa, 7TTv£,<i), &c. 



§ 71. (70 and 71.) 

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF VERBS IN to. 

1. By annexing the given (§ 64) terminations 
to the root, and by observing the rules laid down 



214 ETYMOLOGY. 

(§ 65 — 69) for the augment, the different forms of 
every regular verb may be correctly determined. 
But as the characteristic frequently undergoes 
changes on the union of the root with the termi- 
nation, those verbs which have certain changes in 
common with each other, are, for the facility of 
inspection, ranked together ; and hence arise se- 
veral classes of verbs in <*>. 

2. The whole of verbs in « are first divided into 
two principal classes, namely, 

(a) verbs barytone, that is, such as have their 
final syllable unaccented (see § 10. Note 4). To 
these belong all verbs, whose characteristic is a 
consonant or a diphthong, or a simple vowel, ex- 
cept a, e, and o. (b) Verbs perispome or contract, 
that is, such as have their characteristic vowel 
contracted with the present termination, on which 
account the circumflex then enters upon the 
blended sound produced by contraction. To 
these belong verbs with the characteristics a, e, o. 

3. Verbs barytone are again divided into se- 
veral classes with reference to the identity or 
resemblance of the characteristic, upon which 
depends the conformity of changes in the root be- 
fore certain terminations. 

4. Changes of the characteristic are introduced 
In the formation of verbs, through an endeavour 
after harmony, and are effected according to the 
general rules adduced above, § 15 — 19. In verbs 
barytone such changes are usually requisite, 
when the termination begins and the root ends 
with a consonant, consequently in the tenses 



CLASSES OF VERBS IN to. 215 

whose terminations begin with a, (fut. 1. and 
aor. 1. act. and mid., fut. 3. pass.), or with ju, 
(perf. and plusqupf. pass.), or with 3, (aor. 1. 
and fut. 1. pass.), or with k 9 (perf. act.). Hereto 
is added the breathing connected with the termi- 
nation of the perf. 1. act. in those cases, where it 
is merely a without an acceding k. 

5. For the cases here observed we shall assign 
the necessary changes of the characteristic in the 
different classes of verbs barytone. These classes 
are as follow : 

(A) Verbs pure, whose characteristic is a diph- 
thong or a simple vowel, with the exception of a, 

£, O ; e. g, Tito, eAkVO), /cAata>, (JHk), KzXtVlO, CtKOVU), &C. 

For the formation of the tenses of these verbs the 
general rule obtains, that they annex the tem- 
poral terminations to an unchanged characteristic, 
and receive in the perf. act. the termination ica. 
Besides this, however, the following peculiarities 
are yet to be observed respecting them. 

(1) Secondary tenses are not formed from 
these verbs, except in some whose present root 
has undergone changes. 

(2) Verbs, whose characteristic in the present 
is i or v 3 lengthen this vowel in the fut. and its 
derivative tenses (see §72. 2. II.), when it was short 
in the present ; e. g. SaKpvw, fut. SaKpvvto, aor 

eScucpvcra, pf. pass. Stdatcpv/uiai.— rib), fut. Tiaii), aor. 

trlea, pf, pass, rerlfxai. Exceptions from this rule 
see in § 8. third sect. B. 2. b. 

(3) In the aor. 1. and in the perf. pass, many 
verbs pure insert a a- before the termination, 



216 ETYMOLOGY. 

namely, all those in mo, which retain the short 
vowel in the derivative tenses, (see above, § 8. 
third sect. B. 2. b.), besides the following : ukovcd 
(I hear), /3uw (I stop full), fX/cvw (I draw), Soavw 
(I break in pieces), ksXevw (I urge on), Xtvw (I 
stone), £uw (I scrape), vaXa'tv (I wrestle), vrpiw 
(I saw), TT'caiti) (I stumble), ua» (I rain), ygiw 
(I anoint).— 7rauw (I put an end to) takes <y in the 

aor. hiravG%v } but not in the perf. Trenavfiai. — k\u(a> 

(I shut) fluctuates, having the perf. pass. Ktickzipai, 
besides the usual form /^/cXa^a*. 

Note 1 . Verbs pure in aw, ew, ow, are passed over here, being 
specially treated of as contracts in the sequel (§ 77). 

(B) Verbs mute, whose characteristic is a mute 
letter. Like the mute letters, verbs mute also 
resolve themselves into three divisions, according 
to the different sounds ; consequently, 

(a) Verbs whose characteristic is a P sound, 
either /3 or w, or <£ or ttt (according to § 70. a.) ; 
c. g. rot/3w, TTtfxirii), ypcKjxo, TU7rro>. These unite 
({ 17. 1.) the characteristics with the succeed- 
ing <y of the temporal termination into xp, and 
change the same into p, before the p of the tem- 
poral termination, (§ 16. 1.) into the aspirata $ be- 
fore S, (according to § 15. B.), and likewise into f 
before the aspirated termination a of the perf 1. 

(§ 15. E.) ; e. g. rpifiix), fut. rpixpa), aor. I. hrpiipa, 

perf. 1. TtTpi<j>a 3 aor. 1. pass. krpl^rw, pf. pass. 

TETOtyljUCH. 

Note 2. When fi precedes the P sound, one fx is suppressed 
in the perf. pass., as otherwise three would occur together m t 
e. g. iy^p//.t7rrw (I bring near), pf. pass. cyKe'xp^/^a*. 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 217 

(b) Verbs whose characteristic is a K sound, 
either 7, or k, or x> or ff<T > 7T (§ 70. b.), or I 
(§ 70. c. together with Notes 3 to 6), or kt, (§ 70. 

Note 1.) ; e. g. ayu), ttXzki*), rpzyjx), r<Wa>, OTtvaZoj, 

tiktw. These unite the characteristic with the 
following* a of the temporal termination into £, 
(§17. 2.) and change the same into -y before the 
initial p of the temporal termination (§ 16. 2), 
into x before 9, (§ 15. B.), and likewise into x 
before the aspirated termination of the perf. 1. 

(§ 15. E.) ; e. g. 7rXka>, fut. -n\k£d), pf. 1. 7T£7rX£^a, 
aor. 1. pass, kirkky^nv, perf. pass. TrktrkzyiiaL 

Note 3. Verbs, whose characteristic is yy, drop one y in the 

1 pers. perf. pass. ; e. g. otyiyyio (I tie), pf. pass, etr^iyjaat, but 

2 pers. eV^iy^ai. 

(c) Verbs whose characteristic is a T sound, 
either S, or 3, or r, or 2 (§ 70. c.) ; e.g*. ofSw, Tra'Sw, 
avvru), <j>pala). These drop the T sound before 
temporal terminations beginning with <r (§ 17. 3.), 
change the same into a before fx and 3 (§ 16. 3. 
and $ 17. Note 2.), and take in the perf. 1. act. 
the termination Ka, before which the T sound is 
likewise omitted (§ 17. Note 2.) ; e. g. Treftu), fut 

ird(T(i) } pf. 1. irkiruKa, pf. pass. irkiTUGiiai, aor. 1. 
kiruG$lr\v. 

Note 4. When v stands before the T sound, it disappears on 
the change of the T sound, but the preceding vowel is in that 
case always lengthened (§ 17. Note 1.); e.g. (nrivlu) (I pour 
out), fut. arreted), aor. eWftc-a, pf. 1. eWeem, pf. pass. IWeioy/cu, 
aor. 1. pass. ecnrEivSrjv. 

(C) Verbs liquid, whose characteristic is one 
of the liquids, X p, v, p, or also XX (§ 70. d) ; e.g. 



218 ETYMOLOGY. 

<tte\X(»), vkfXM, (palvoj, GTrelpu). These do not form the 
fut. 1., but the fut. 2. act. and mid. ; in the aor. 
1. act. and mid. they drop the <r of the termina- 
tion, but in that case always lengthen the short 
vowel of the root, in the pf. 1. they take the ter- 
mination Ka ; e. g. (xreXAw, fut. (jtzXu, in the mid. 

creAoi^iac, aor. ccrraAa, mid. carEiAa^v, perf. 1. 

iaraXica, perf. pass. foraApu. The following pe- 
culiarities must be observed in addition to these 
general rules for verbs liquid : 

(1) in the fut. 2. the vowel in the last syllable 
of the root is always shortened, in which case 
the diphthong at changes into a, and u into c ; 

e, g. Kpiva), fut. Kpivio, — <J>euvu>, fut. (j>avu, — o-tthogj, 

Hit. (77TEOW. 

(2) The aor. 1. is to be deduced from the fut. 
2., and in such a manner that the short vowel in 
the last syllable of the root is changed into a 
kindred long sound ; e. g« from the fut. Kpivio, 
aor. 1. tKplva. from the fut. <£avw, aor. 1. i(j>yva. — 

KTUVb), fut. ktbvio, ROY. 1. £/CT£iva. — ifiaWw, fut. \pa\<o, 
aor. 1. tyriXa. 

Note 5. Of verbs in alvio, all" those which end in laivu) and 
paivoj take an d instead of rj in the aor. 1., as iriaLvu) (I make 
fat), ev(j)paivio (I exhilarate), aor. 1. kVidVa Evtypdva, besides 
also KepSatvii) (I gain), KoiXaivu) (I excavate), XevKaiyio (I make 
white), TVE7caiv(o (I make ripe) : thus aor. 1 . eKep^ava, exoiXdva, 
&c. Of ar]fiaLVi)) (I give a sign) both formations earjfirjva and 
eff{]fjidva occur. With later writers the forms of the aor. 1. in 
most verbs in ahio and cupw interchange r\ and a. In the Doric 
dialect most of these form their aor. with d ; in the Ionic, on the 
contrary, with r}. 

3. In verbs liquid, whose monosyllabic root 



CLASSES OF VERBS IN a>. 219 

contains e or u, these sounds change into a in the 
pf. 1. act. and pf. pass., as also in all aor. 2. and 
in the aor. 1. pass. ; e. g. fieipu), (I destroy), pf. 

1. itffcapKa, pf. pass, e^apfiai, aor. 2. pass. tySaprjv. — 
oteXXw (I send), EGTaXica, i&raXfim, loraAS^v, £<TTa\rjv. 
— KTtlvio (I kill), aor. 2. EKTttvov. 

(4) in the perf. 1. act. of verbs in vw, v must 
become y before k of the termination ; e. g. tyaivM 
(I show), pf. 7T£(j>ayKa. This perfect of such verbs, 
however, occurs only seldom, and is sometimes 
formed even with the omission of the v. This 
omission is regular not only in the perf. 1., but 
also in pf. and aor. 1. pass, in kAivw (I bend), 
Kplvu) (I judge), 7r\vvb) (I wash), ktuvm (I kill), 
rdvo) (I stretch) ; e. g\ from kXivoj, pf. 1. KficXucct, 

pf. pass. fcijcXf/iac, aor. 1. pass. c/eXi'Styv. — ravw. 

pf. 1. TETaKa, pf. pass, rirafmi, aor. 1. fraSfyv (where 
a enters agreeably to the observation in the pre- 
ceding section). In the aor. 1. pass., however, 
the retention of v in these verbs, with the excep- 
tion of reivd), is not unusual ; and with the poets it 
is frequently necessary, in order to gain a long 
syllable ; e. g. sic\lv%v for kXi^v, &c. 

(5) the formation of the perf. pass, of verbs in 
aivoj and vvb) is liable to still greater fluctuation* 
Generally v is changed into o- before the termina- 
tion fuai ; e. g. fycuvo), perf. pass. TrLfyaafxai ; but, in 
several verbs of this kind, v before p becomes 
likewise p, as in ^palvio (I dry), pf. pass, e^pappai : 
in some forms v is even omitted, and the vowel 
before the termination lengthened ; e. g. rpa^vvay 
(I make rough or angry), pf. pass. Terpayv/nai. 



220 ETYMOLOGY. 

Lastly, all this holds good only of the first per- 
son of the pf. pass., the v, on the contrary, being 
replaced in the remaining forms of this tense ; 

thus, 7T£0ao^uat, 2 pers. Trkfyavvai.- — sZMpajipai, 3 pers. 
£%ripavTai 9 &C. 

(6) Verbs, having the characteristic /*, form 
their pf. 1. always according to a lengthened form 
in cw, consequently with the termination ma ; e. g. 

vefxu) (I divide), pf. 1. vtvipriKa. 



§ 72. (72. 8.) 
AFFINITY OF THE TENSES TO EACH OTHER. 

1. Although each tense can be formed from the 
root of the verb distinctly and independently of 
every other by means of a peculiar termination, 
yet it is evident that certain tenses are either 
perfectly similar, or very nearly allied to each 
other with reference to the changes which take 
place in annexing the termination to the cha- 
racteristic, while others again have other peculi- 
arities in common. 

2. Agreeably to this affinity, with reference to 
the change of the characteristic, all tenses are re- 
solved into three divisions, so that those adduced 
in one order are always allied together and distinct 
from those in another. These three divisions are 
as follow : 

L Tenses which are always formed from an un- 



PECULIARITIES OF SINGLE TENSES. 221 

changed present root : present and imperfect, act., 
pass, and mid. 

II. Tenses which usually change the character- 
istic : futur. 1. and aor. 1. act. and mid. — Per- 
fect 1. and plusquampf. 1. act. and perfect and 
plusquampf. pass., besides futur. 3. — Aorist 1. and 
futur. 1. pass. 

III. Tenses which are always formed from a 
pure root with an unchanged characteristic : futur. 
2. and aor. 2. act. pass, and mid. — Perfect 2. and 
plusquampf. 2. 

Note. The only change, which the root can undergo in the 
tenses of this last order, is that of the radical vowel, of which 
something has been said in § 71. c. 3. ; the rest is given in the 
following $. 



§ 73 a . (72.) 

PECULIARITIES IN THE FORMATION OF SINGLE 
TENSES. 

The necessary particulars respecting the for- 
mation of tenses have been adduced above, § 71., 
according to the different classes of verbs, and 
from the rules there laid down most tenses may be 
correctly formed from their different roots. Many 
roots, however, on account of their peculiar na- 
ture, are subject to certain changes not specified 
therein ; and in like manner also for some tenses 
certain distinct peculiarities are to be observed, 
which we here classify together. 

1. Of the roots which undergo peculiar changes 



222 ETYMOLOGY. 

in the formation of the tenses, those, whose last 
letter is i or v, have been already treated of above, 
§ 71. A. 2. We here shall adduce the necessary 
particulars respecting those which have the 
vowel e or the diphthongs a and ev in the middle 
of the root. 

(a) In monosyllabic roots of verbs mute, which 
have c in the middle, this £ usually changes into 
a in the aor. 2. ; e, g. Tpi-rno (I turn), aor. 2. irpa- 
ttov. — Tr\sKio (I plat), aor. 2. pass. fVAa/ajv. — flpz%<*> 
(I moisten), aor. 2. pass. kfipayr\v* Much more 
rarely this change of sound enters also into the 
perf. pass., where it only occurs with certainty 
in <TTp£(j>(x) (I turn round), Tpha) (I turn), Tptyw (I 

nourish,) pf. pass. eaTpa/JLjiiai, TZTpanpai, T&pafifiai. 

The more extensive and constant use of this 
change of sound in the roots of verbs liquid has 
been specified above, § 71. C. 3. 

Note 1. This change of sound does not extend to all verbs 
mute of this kind, even in the aor. 2., but several retain the ra- 
dical vowel e unchanged in all the forms ; thus, /3X£Vw (I see), 
Xiyio (I say), XtVw (I peel), QXeyu) (I burn). 

Note 2. The following verbs, which adopt o in exchange for e 
in the perf. 1., are to be observed as exceptions from the general 
analogy : K'XeVrw (I steal), Xeyw (I gather), Trifi-jro) (I send), rpeVw 
(I turn), pf. K£/c\o^)«, eiXo^ct, ttetto fupa, rirpofa (similar to the 
pf. 2. of Tpi([>(i}). The same analogy is followed by fcldoj (I 
fear), pf. ^e^oikci. 

(b) The diphthong a in the middle of the root of 
verbs mute becomes t in the aor. 2. ; e. g\ AaVoj (I 
leave), aor. 2. iXtirov. — 7raSo/icu (I believe, obey), 
aor. 2. zm%iir)v. Concerning the other mode by 
which the sound of a is changed in verbs liquid, 
see § 71. C. 3. 



PECULIARITIES OF SINGLE TENSES. 223 

(c) The diphthong n> in the middle of the root 
becomes v in the aor. 2. ; e. g. epzvyt*) (I bellow)* 
aor. 2. vpvyov. — tXevSw (obsolete radical form 
to Ip^opai, I come), aor. 2. ?iXvSov.-— fcvyio (I fly), 
aor. £(j)vyov. 

2. The fut. 2. and fut. Att., besides the perf. 2., 
perf. pass, and the aorists pass., we adduce as 
tenses, in the formation of which distinctive pe- 
culiarities are to be observed. 

(a) The fut. 2. act. and mid. is formed by- 
annexing the termination e'w and eojucu, contracted 
in Attic into w and ovfim, and constitutes the pe- 
culiar form of the fut. in verbs liquid. In other 
verbs it is so little used in the general languuge, 
that it can be referred to with certainty only in 
four, and in those always in the middle form 
alone ; namely, 

ixayovfiai as fut. to fxayofxai (I fight). 
e^ovjuai — je£ojucu (I sit). 

TriovfjLai (*) — 7Tiva> (I drink). 

iSofiai (*) — aA'w (I eat). 

But notwithstanding this a fut. is formed by 
many verbs pure and mute, which has the same 
termination with the fut. 2., and, on account of 
the frequent use made of it by the Attics, is 
called the Attic Future. Thus when one of the 
three short vowels, a, e, ?, stands before <r of the 
termination of the fut. 1. in dissyllabic and poly- 

*' etiopat, instead of edovfiat, has remained as a relic of an old 
and uncertain formation. In like manner besides mov/tcu we 
find also 7rlojj.cn, in more frequent use. 

1 



224 ETYMOLOGY. 

syllabic roots, a is omitted, and the termination 
(w, ov^tai) receives a circumflex ; e. g. 

KOfll^W, Alt. KOfllGli), flit. Attic KOjJLlCHf ITQld. KOfilOVfJLai. 

The vowels a and € are besides contracted with 
the termination ; e. g. 

IX^w, fut. iXaffw, fut. att. i\aw,contr. eXw, 2 pers. eX^c, &C 

reXeWj — reXeVw — teXsw — reXw, — teXeiq 

OKE^aVVVfiLy (TKeScKTOJ, ■ <TK£()au> <TK£$(t> t — (TICE()q.Q 

This is the most usual form of the fut. in 
verbs in /£&>, with a polysyllabic root, and of those 
in su) which retain e unchanged in the fut. (see 
§ 77. Obs. 2. b.), but verbs in a£o> generally form 
the fut. with <r* 

(b) The perf. 2. annexes the termination a to 
the pure characteristic of the root and, as a rule, 
lengthens the vowel of the penultimate syllable, 
if it is short ; e. g. %\\d) (I bloom), fut. SaXw, 
perf. 2. re%\a t N v-vertheless, in exception from 
this, it must be observed that not only o, 
standing in the middle of the root, remains un- 
changed in the perf. 2., but £ in the middle 
of all roots, and u in the final syllable of the 
roots of verbs liquid, invariably change into o in 
that tense ; e. g. S^kw (I see), pf. 2. USopica. — 
j&elpw (I destroy), pf. 2. i^opa. On the contrary, 
if the diphthong u stands in the final syllable of 
the root of verbs mute, it changes in the perf. 2. 
into ot ; e. g. XaVw (I leave), pf. 2. \t\onra. — bikoj 
(I am like), pf. 2. *Wa. But if the Attic redupli- 
cation accedes to the pf. 2., the penultimate 



FORMATION OF SINGLE TENSES. 225 

syllable is usually shortened ; e. g\ aKova) (I hear), 

pf. 2. ciK7}Koa.- — eAcuSw (old radical form to ep^ofiaiy 

I come), pf, 2. kXyXZSa, although in Epic also 

(c) The changes which the characteristic un- 
dergoes in annexing the termination of the pf. 
pass, have been adduced in § 7L Also men- 
tion has been made under 1. a. in the same sec- 
tion, respecting the change of sound, which some- 
times takes place in verbs containing € in their 
root A remark, therefore, merely remains to be 
added here on the formation of the third person 
plur, of this tense. The Ionians, to evade the 
harsh form of the 3 pers, plur., change the v be- 
longing to the termination into a. Before this 
termination arm, the characteristic, when a P or 
H sound, changes into the aspirata (<p, x)> but the 
T sounds remain unchanged, and instead of I the 
S contained therein is substituted; e.g\ 



TtTvtyarai from 


TV7TTM 


TZTayarai 


TCKJGh) 


7r£7T£tS'arai 


7T£i3w 


£GK£va$aTai — • 


(TK£va£(t) 


e<rr aXarat — 


arcAAto. 



This form of the 3 plur. perf. pass, is so pre- 
valent with the Ionians, as to be formed by them 
also in verbs pure, where on account of the pre- 
ceding vowel no harshness is produced by annex- 
ing the termination ; e. g. fafioXv at ai for ftffiXtivrai, 
from poAfoj. In the later Ionic dialect, v before 

Q 



226 ETYMOLOGY. 



the termination changes into e in this case ; e. g. 

ipKEdTdi for WK7]VTai. 

In the genera] language the 3 plur. perf. pass* 
is formed simply by verbs pure alone, in all other 
cases it is periphrastically expressed by the par- 
ticiple and auxiliary verb stpli 

The plusquampf. pass, follows the perf. in its 
whole formation. 

(d) The aorists passive belong in their ex- 
ternal form to the active conjugation pi, and 
conform to the analogy of verbs in ^i, (see § 
79.), whose radical vowel is c, with this single 
distinction, that the aor. pass, universally retain 
the long vowel in conjugation. 



§ 73 b . 
PARADIGMS. 

1. For a complete survey of and for accurate 
practice in verbal forms we give in the adjoined 
sheets first (Tab. 2.) a comparative synopsis of 
the formation of tenses in the different classes of 
verbs harytone, and next (Tab. 3.) a complete 
scheme of conjugation through all the modes 
and tenses. 

2. It is evident from the adduced paradigms 
(Tab. 2.), that the fut. 2. act. and mid. belongs 
peculiarly to verbs liquid alone, and is wanting in 
the remaining verbs. Hence the deduction of the 
forms of these tenses through all the modes and 



% 

fferent Classt 

E. 

II. Class, 

(2) with th 

tics y, k, x, 

I RULE. 

yx<i 
vpx ov 
yx a 

vpx"v 
wanting. 

wanting. 



E. 



apx o , aal 

ripypai 
r/p-y/urjv 

apy^rjaofJiaL 

wanting. 



p^ofxai 
o^afx-qv 

v^antins: 



D % 



| aft of the paradi 



TABLE 2. 

Comparative Synopsis of Forms in the different Classes of Verbs Barytone. 
ACTIVE. 





Temporal Termi- 


I. Class, w 


hose Characte- 




II. Class 


Verbs Mute. 








Tenses. 


nations and 


ristic is a Vowel or 


(1) With the Characteris- 


(2) with the Characteris- 


(3) With the Characteris- 
tics 8, S, r, t 


III. Class, with the Cha- 




Augment. 


Diphthong. 


tics )3, 7T, $, ITT. 


tics 7 , K , x, 


KT, <,« 01- TT, I. 


racteristics X, (i, v, ( >. 






I LOOSEN. 


I COMMAND. 


I LEAVE. I SEW. 


I RULE. 


I ARRANGE. 


I PERSUADE. I PREPARE. 


I SOW. 


Present. 


HI 


Xvw 


KtXtiu 


X«Vu» paiTTii) 




TEUTVM 


irs»w 


OKEud&U 


EtTTTEipOV 

eoiraptca 

tairapKiiv 

EffTTOpd 


Imperfect. 


e — on 


eXuoi/ 


bceXevov 


sXstirov sppaiTTOV 


ETamrov 


IwtSoV 


cffirfa&w 


Perfect 1. 


- £ — a or ra 


XeXukc 


KEKeXeVKCE 


\i\zt(j>a 'sppatya 




TtVaxa 


TTtTTElKa 


EtTKEuaKa 


Plusquamperf. 1. 


i - e — iw or km 


iXtXvKav 


ekekeXeukeev 


eAcXei^ejv tppafaiv 


W<" 


ETETO X EIV 


eVeTTEIKECV 


EffKEUnKEtV 


Perfect 2. 


-E — a 


wanting * 


wanting. 


\s\onra wanting. 


wanting. 


TEra-ya 


7TE7TOt9a 


wanting. 


Plusquamperf. 2. 


E- E Ell> 


— 


— 


iXeXo«r«v — 


— 


srETaytrv 


Eir£7T0i9EIV 


— 


nnropuv 


Future 1. 


— a« 


XJ™ 


keXeuhw 


Xeti/'W paipttt 


ap5(u 


* 


7TEI(T(D 


(TKtvaoto 


wanting. 


Aorist 1. 


1 — au 


eXwci 


EKfiXfivtra 


eXeii/'a eppaxpa 


^p5» 


Era&a 


eVeKXCI 


EGKtvaoa 




Future 2. 


— u 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


CTTTEpw 


Aorist 2. 








PASSIVE 






iVlSov 




EffTTajOOV 


Present. 


— opa, 


Xvojttai 


^eXe^CE 


Xsivrojuai parrropai 


opx«/«» 


TcWcyia. 


7r £ »o^a. 


aKevatflfiat 


airtipoftdt 


Imperfect. 


e — o/xyv 


eXvoiitjv 


ekeXevoiijjv 


IXeittojutjv sppaTTToftrtv 


i)j>X<W 


£Ta(T(IO^T)V 


ETTEtSdjUTiV 


eaKEvalofinv 


ivnttpopriv 


Perfect. 


- e — juai 


AtXiyiai 


kekeXeikteicii 


XeXuppat tppappat 


fyyitai 


rErayiia. 


TTE7rEICTj[tai 


koKivaapat 


fawapfiat 


Plusquamperf. 


E - E L1T|V 


eXeXv/»J1» 


EKtKEXtVafXTlV 


eXeXeiji/itjv tppaf.tp.j)V 


iipW" 




'meirUBjiriv 


koKEvaapriv 


eawappiiv 


Aorist 1. 


E — V 


eXvSijv 


kiXn«%v 


eXei^i&jv ippa<j&i)V 


>ipxV 


craySqv 


eVew9i)v 


«re«/aW 


'tanapSnv 


Future 1. 


— 9tJ(TO^«i 


XuSiVo^iat 


Kt\tvaZT}aofiat 


Xa^i)(7opat pa<p%i}oopat 


<i/o^9i'j(jo/iat 


raySiiaojxai 


ttektS/kto^oi 


oKEvatr$i}0opat 1 


O7rap%i)oopai 


Aorist 2. 


£ T(l> 


wanting. 


wanting. 


eX(7T);v kppa^-qv 


wahting. 


irayiiv 


sV£V 


wanting. 1 


owapi)v 


Future 2. 


— ijiro/ini 


— 


— 


Xnrrjaopai pa^ijaopai 


— 


Tayiftroftat 


7T(9^uo/iai 


— 


<T7rapi}GO[tai 


Future 3. 


- e ffo/iai 


\t\voo[iat 


KEKtktvaofxai 


MIDDLE. 




Tirana, 


TTEJTEIffO/KH 


taKtvaaopat \ 


wanting. 


Future 1. 


— <ro,.CH 


Xiooftai 


KtXtuffo^ai 


AtrJ-niiai. paifiottai 


Spgo/tui 


ra&ywi 


vtiaofiai 


GKtvaaopai 


wanting. 


Aorist 1. 


E on/iTiv 


(XllCTa^TJV 


£Kt\(.VGCtfl1]V 


tXuxpapijv £ppa\Pafuiv 


Vf>£aftT)V 


Era£d/H)K 


ElTElffO/HIW 


eoKtvatrapnv ctnrupafuiv 


Future 2. 


— oiifuu 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. oTnpovpai 


Aorist 2. 


E OjUTlV 






ftw * n 






iv&oiaiv 


— |e 


sirapopitv. 



' verbs- all ll* rest of the paradigms are formed completely without regard as to any particular form of the iiulividu 



L 



firjv 

as ii 

uriv 

as ii 



as ii 

T 
T 



q2 



[To face page 2S6.] 



TABLE 3. 

Complete Scheme of Conjugation for Verbs Barytone. 
ACTIVE. 



TENSES. 


INDICATIVE. 


CONJUNCTIVE. 


OPTATIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


NFINITINE. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Present. 
I strike. 


Sing- 


Dual. Plural. 


Sing, 
ruirry 


Dual. 

TVWTtiTOV 


Plural. 

TUTTTEtJEEEV 


Sing. 

TVWTOIS 


Dual. Plural. 

TU7TTOI/MV 

TU7TT01TOV TUTTTOirE 
rUTTTOlTIJV TVTTTOItV 


Sing. 


Dual. Pl ura i. 

TinrrETWv Tun-rETWffar 

and TUTTOITWI' 


rfr™ 


gen. iwrovroc, outrijc. 


Imperfect. 
I struck. 


EF 


— et-vtttoeeev 
erutttetov e7u7ttete 
£TU7TT(r^V irvTTTOv 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


Perfect 1. 
I have struck. 


TiTVfr 


TlTV<\>aTOV TETU0EETE 
TETU0EETOV TZTVtpatTt 


rertyoi 

TErtyyc 
TErii^j 


TETV<f>T}TOV 


TErU^WEEEl. 

TEru^tjre 


TiTVffoifU 

TETU^ioic; 

TETU^Ot 


TETU0OIT1JV TETuAoiEV 


si 


TETU0ETOV TETU^ETE 
TEm^ETWU TETUI^STGJffaV 
and TETU^OVTdiV 


TEr^Eva. 


TEru^lic, ma, dc. 

gen. TErv^oroc, wiac, 


Plusquamperfect I. 
I had struck. 


ETETU^EIC 


ET-Eru^Et'rtJv IrETU^Eiiravand 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


Future 1. 
I shall strike. 


***" 


as the present. 


wanting. 


rtflpotfu 

as the present. 


wanting. 


rttyav 


•**"k ou < r "> ""■ 


Aorist 1. 


fcfc 


— etui/<ei£e£v 


rH» 




t. 


t^eeee., 
rJi^aic Or 

TV^HE 


TVlpatfltV 

TVipairov rv^airt 


rtyov 


Tuifiarov Tuipart 


*. 


^ """■ 


I (once) struck. 


iV^ e 


*rt<i£uriji< iTVipav 






TVXpa'lTIJV TVXplUZV 01* 


rofS™ 


and Tui^uvrwv 




gen. avroc. 


Aorist 2. 
I (once) struck. 


ETU7TOV 


stuttoeeei' 

ErUn-ETIJV ETU7TOV 


""" 


TUJTOlJUt 

as 


in the present. 


run-E 


n™, 


TVV&V, oma, 6v. 


Perfect 2. 
I have struck. 


as the perfect 1. 


TiTVTTU, 


T£TU7T0IjUL 


rfcuire 


nrmrtvn 


TEruirwc;, via, oc 


Plusquamperfect 2. 
I had struck. 


IrtTiTrav 


the pluperfect 1. 





















Present. 
I am struck. 


TVTTTOfiai 
TV7TTTQ (fl) 


TUTrro^tSov 
T y7rr£(r9ov 

TUITTEffSoV 


TU7r7Eff9e 
TUTrovrat 


TU7TrEt)EEUE 

TunrrjTaE 


TUTTTEJ^E&Oy TUTTTWEEESa 

ruTmja^oy TUin-TicrSE 

TVTTTItadov TVTTTWVTtll 


TU7TTOIEEFJV TUTTTOl/EE^OV TUTTTOe'eEeSeE 
TV1TT01O TUTTTOECT^OV TUTTTOKtSe 
TUTTTOITO TU7TTOEErSnV TUTTTOEvro 


TVTTTOV 
TUnTEoSdE 


iwtesiSov ruirrEdSE 
TuTrrE'aSajw TU7rrEcr9wffav 
and tuttte'etSeov 


TUJTTE(lS(El 


TUTTTO^EVOC, J], OV. 


Imperfect. 
I was struck. 


ETV1TTOfXl)V 


irUHTO/uSoV 
£TU7TTE<j£oV 

eWtecV 


eTUTTTOyueStl 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


Perfect. 
1 have been struck. 


rerujujucu 


tetv/eeeeSov 

teVu^Sov 

teVu^Sov 


TETUlf&e 


TETWECEIEVOC 


S. the verb e 


TETUjUEEEVOC EEIJV 

eee', page 280. 


ZZtl 


TEru^Sov tetu^Se 

-etu09eov Tl7V(J>$tiK7aV 

and TtTvcfim' 


rerli<p%i 


TETtififdvot;, t?, or. 


Plusquamperfect. 
1 had been struck. 


ETETII^tTJV 


etetSee/^ov 
ErerfyV 


£T£TUjU^£&a 
ETETU^E 

TET-WjU/ieVoi ij<rav 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


wanting. 


Aorist 1. 
1 was (once) struck. 




etu^Voie 


tTVtj&il/Lltl' 

ET^V* 

ETUt^&Tjcrav 




TU^SaiEEEy 

TU^JIITOV TU^SeuETE 


TU^See'tjV TE"/$EE«EIEV 

TVifitlrtQ tu^See'tjtov teje/jSeeVe 
ruj>9«7| ivifSEnVjiiE (TinfSs^ffav) 




TV$%TOV TU^SnrE 


-*■ 


gen. tvroc, EWfjc, e'vtoc. 


Future 1. 
I shall be struck. 


111 


TUEpl)ErfiEE£$ON 
TU^JlJffEffSoi' 
TV<p8i)OE<I%OV 


ru^S/jtrOfUESa 

TU0Si7ff£tT&E 

Tu^SijfJOVTat 


wanting. 


TU^lJCrOEEHllE 

as in the present. 


wanting. 


TU^9ijOEff9ui 


TU<j)3»I(TO/i£WOC> »|» OV. 


Aorist 2. 
I was (once) struck. 


W» n » 


4 




n,™ 






r ^ & 


"""""" 




as in the 


TUTTEEI|V 

aorist 1. 


Tvmtg, ttoa, tv. 


Future 2. 
I shall be struck. 


TUTTJJOOJUat 


as the future 1 . 


wanting. 


TUTTTJETOl'tEEJV 

as in the present. 


wanting. 


TVTTl)OEO$ai 


TU7r/)<TO/i£VOC, 71, OV. 


Future 3. 
1 shall have been struck. 


T£TUl/(O^Ot 


tetu^o'eeeSov 

TEl-C^EErSc, 


TETUl/'O/tESa 
TEr^EO^E 

rertyovrat 




wanting. 


tetui/,oe'/ei|V 

as in the present. 




wanting. 


rEru^Sa. J 


TtTUlpOflEVOQ, q, OV, 













MIDDLE. 








Future 1. 
I shall strike myself. 


rui/.p (ee) 
Tvfcral 


TU'/'O/IeSoV TV\p6fX£%u 
TV^EffSov TVif/OVTat 


wanting. 


TUUjOIEEIJV 

as in the present. 


wanting. 


rtytvSat 


rvipofitvog, 7), ov. 


Aorist 1. 
I (once) struck myself. 


Ertyaro 


ill 


TUI^EUEEEIE 


in the present. 




tiiuWeetiv TEti^aiEtESov Tvipai/i&a 
Tinjjaio Tinl/aia%v tu^eeeetje 
rvXai-o TuipaloSliiv rvipaivro 


and TEf^atrSEtfy 


*** 


Tvypufitvos, tj, ov. 


Aorist 2. 
I (once) struck myself. 


iTV7TU>t>ll' 


as the imperfect. 


TU7TEIJEEEIE 


as ir 


the 


TU7TOIEEE)l/ 

present. 


as in the present. 


■nmioSai 


TUTTO/iEVOf, J}, OV. 



PARADIGMS OF THE CONJ, IN «. 227 

persons could not be given in a complete scheme 
of conjugation selected for verbs mute, and, there- 
fore, their particular inflexion must be pointed 
out here in the example of a verb liquid. 

Active. 

Pres. errlAXw (I send), conj. gtzWu, opt. trreAAoijiu, 
imper. orcAAe, infin. cjteWeiv, partic. oreAAwi/, 

ovaa, ov. 
Imperf. axrcAAov. 

Perf. 1. eoTaAjca, COnj. earaX/cw, Opt. toraXKoijUi, 
imper. arraX/ce, inf. co-raA/ccvat, particip. zaraXicwg, 
Kvta, koc;. 

Plusqpf. 1. £(7raA/C€iv. 



Perf. 2. cffroAa, &C. 
Plusqpf. 2. e<jTo\uv. 



Sinff. Dual. Plur. 



rut. 2. areXui — arreXovfiev Opt. (rreXolfjii, (tteXoIq^ 

areXeig areXelrou crreX&ire &c. infin. oreXelv, 

gteXei areXelrov (tteXovctl partic. areXiovy ov<ra, 

ovv, Gen. owroc. 

Aor. 1. ivTuXa, conj. dra'Xw, opt. <jT£i\aifu, imper. 

^teiAov, infin. crraXai, partic. crra'Aac, aaa, a v. 

Aor. 2. iaraXov, COnj. <7raXw, opt. crraAoip, imper. 
oraXe, infin. crraXav, partic araXiov, ovaa, ov. 

Passive. 

Pres. ffrsAAojimi, COnj. areXXto/uai, opt. (JTeWoljULriv, 

imper. (rrcAAov, infin. arE'XXayScu, partic. orcAAo- 

/iuvo£, r/, ov. 

q2 



288 ETYMOLOGY. 

Imperf. coreXXo^v. 

Perf. zvTaXjLiai, COllj. ecTTaX/nevog Z, opt. loraX/jfvoc 
tirjv, imper. £oraX<xo, infin. ftrraXSai, partic. coraX- 

jU£VO£, 1], OV. 

Plusqpf. k(TraXimrjv 

Aor. 1. kaToXStiv, conj. (xraX^w, opt. gtciXSuyiv, imper. 

oraXStyre, infin. (TraXS^yai, partlC. GTaXSug, uaa, ev. 
rut. 1. araX^r]aoixai 9 opt. oraXStyffot/iTjv, infin, <JTaX%i]- 

<J£G%ai, partic. GTCtXSriGOIUEVOQ, 7}, OV. 

Aor. 2. EdTaXrjv. The remaining modes as in the 
aor. 1. 



Fut. 2. (TTaXrjaofxai. The remaining modes as in the 
fut 1. 

Middle. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 

Fut. 2. orcXoujuai (tteXoujueSov ffreXoVjUE^a Opt.orrcXot/ujfv, 

oreXoio, &C. 
arsX^ or oteXektSov {TteXckt^e 
otsXei inf. crreXctffSa^ 

orreXarai areXficr^ov OTtXouvrat part. oteXow- 

^uevoc, V> ov. 



Aor. 1. £areiXajLiY}v 9 COnj. GTuXwfiai, Opt. oteiXcu^uijv, 
imper. aruXai, infin. orEiXao-Sai, partic. GTeiXafitvog, 
t) 9 ov. 



Aor. 2. £GraX6fit}v 9 COnj. (rraktJfjLai, opt. (TTaXoifiriv, 
imper. araXou, infin. erraXecrSai, partic <rraXojU£voc s 
Vi ov. 



PARADIGMS OF THE CONJ. IN * 229 

3. As the perf. pass, annexes the termination 
immediately to the root, its conjugation expe- 
riences different changes not only according to a 
difference of the initial letter of the termination in 
the several persons, but chiefly also according to 
a difference of the characteristic of the verbal roots. 
Hence one paradigm cannot supply sufficient in- 
formation for conjugating the perf. pass, of all 
verbs, but a particular one must be given for each 
separate class. For this purpose we select the 
following verbs, the perf. pass, of which are con- 
jugated in the succeeding page collaterally with 
each other: 

UaiSevw (I educate), Tpifia) (I rub), Tug™ (I order), 
IletSw (I persuade), 'AyytAXw (I announce). 



230 ETYMOLOGY. 



ST » 

O ^^ 8 - o «5 

sSs woo « w t- -£ »j „_ 

f< << r< £< >< >< C^wC^O/^'w •-> 

iu w w v w W **» ^ w «* ^w " W j>_ 

?-^^ j^^?^ t" t: ^ ?- ^ > 

^ ^ ^ <** *- .?> ^gr ^ ?> i 

*£->p*?r *>??*£•*£• *S , «P'*$y *>js- \ 























CO 








/"*"!\ 














i>^ 








CO ^ 














?-4 




£?^o? 
















C^S 




^<0 N 




8 


•— 




o 






^^ 




•^ v.^ 


•J 


tf* * 5 


<^ UJ 


8 




> 






co 






8 


w O O 


8_<n 

^b b , 


l- 

8 


O 


^S.* 


b 




T 




52 5 


b 


^b b b 


?? 


b " 


w 










www 

fc N N 


E J 






w 






<Npq 




"g v g 


^w 


VJ -w --w 

N fc fc 








w 






El 


o5 

> 




















• i—) 






•"""s. 














•"~^ • 


CO 




















»0 «3 


U2 

A 


/"">» 


r-> 














Y 1 ^ 


<N ^"N 


t^ 


w O O 

^ X X 








«a 






j c<?» 


Ph 


^l£ 




8 


rt 




o 












8 


^8 8 


8 
l- 

8 s *H 

XO 


^w * 
8_. 


b 

w 




1—1 /^*> 
^ 1 


o 


8 8 


8 


^S 8 8 
*• -fc -w 


^8 




8 














cr 














GO *>- 




3^ 


!> 




8 

!:-§■ 






O 






CO 




1*3 


8 


w O O 
"8U cL Q*. 


8 

"o,v 




S 




80 




4- t- 


l- 


1, 1- »- 


W h 


i- 




l- 






1 




«Mjy vjjy 


"^W 


W -IW ^UJ 


VJ ^w 


w 




w 






1^ 




1- 1- 


i- 


I- I- 1- 


I- *- 


b 




h 






CO 








1 > > 


8 ... 


„, 




-i 




o 


o5^ 




1 8 

a. b 


8 
1- 
9 


4& 

S b 


8 
w 

£2 




8 
8 




g w b 






C© CO 


co 
8 


yj UJ w 

S 8 8 


co ^2 

1= t= 


o 


CO 

8 


o 


co " 55 
8 


T 








N N fc 

w w w 

fe fc N 






w 
1=: 






CO 
t— 1 




■><-> 






















ctf 


















VC?> 




:§ b '° 




13 


1—) 

Ph 












r— 4 








Q 












V»^ 



PARADlGxMS OF THE CONJ. IN *. 



231 



The conj. and opt. of the perf. pass, have no 
independent form but are expressed periphras-. 
tically by the participle and the auxiliary verb 

COnj. 7r£7raidtvidhoQ ur\v. So also of the 



zivai ', 

rest. 



e.g. 



Note 1 . Independent forms for these modes are found only 
in some perfects in rjjuiai, as will be shewn below in the contracted 
conjugation (see § 77. obs. 3). Of the opt. of verbs in tiw and 
vio, in which i of the optative termination is absorbed, and the 
characteristic vowel thereby made long, as d7ro(f>Sifir]i> (opt. perf. 
pass, of a7ro(J)$l(jj) Horn. Od. 10. 51. and XiXvrw (of \i»w) Od. 
18. 238. (comp. § 79. obs. I. 5.), examples are very rare. 



Imperative. 



Sing. 

7T£7ratO£U(70 TETpitpO TZTal^O TT£7T£lGO 

wtTrai^tva'Su) T£rpi<j)%(o Tzray^ld) ttzttzig^ij) 

&c. &c. &c. &c. 



rjyyeAao 
&C. 



c^ucrS* 



7T£7rai6fucr^ai 



TTtTraidevjui- 
voq, r\ } ov. 



Infinitive. 

7ETpi<£Sai TZTay%ai 7r£7rsiGZai 

Participle. 



rjyy 



&3c 



TETpijufxi- TZTayfiE- 7r^7reiGjae- TjyyeXfxi- 
voq,7]jOV. vog,riy6y. vog,r],ov. voQ } r\,ov. 



Note 2. The plusqpf. pass, in its formation and in all the 
changes produced through its conjugation conforms entirely to 
the analogy of the perfect. 



232 ETYMOLOGY. 

Observations on the Conjugation in w. 

§ 74. (76 L) 
USE OF VERBAL FORMS. 

(J) In scarcely any verb do we find the great 
number of forms, which can be regularly deduced 
from it, completely in use. An acquaintance* 
therefore, with the usual forms must be sought for 
by the perusal of Greek authors and from good 
lexicons. 

(2) Particular caution must be exercised in the 
use of the aor. 2. act. and mid. and perf. 2., which, 
in the majority of verbs, were manifestly never 
formed by the Greeks. On the contrary, the aor. 
1. and the perf. 1. are common to almost all verbs. 
When the two aorists are extant in one and the 
same verb, the use of one form is at least predo- 
minant and the other generally belongs to only 
a single dialect. 

(3) In general the rule obtains, that the aor. 2. 
act and pass, and the perf. 2. can seldom be 
formed in verbs pure and never in trisyllabic 
and polysyllabic derivative verbs ending in a£w, 
/£a>, mvto, vvb), euw, aw, ew, ow. For the most part, 
the aor. 2. act. as well as the perf. 2., is formed 
only in primitive (not derivative) verbs, and in those 
chiefly, which have received an accession to the 
root in the present or have undergone a change 
in the characteristic ; e. g. AaVw, aor. 2. i\n?ov s 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN w .— DIALECTS. 233 

perf. 2. XeXoara. — avSavix), aor. 2. 'iaSov, perf. 2. 



tada. 



(4) The conjunct, and optat., and particularly 
the imperat. perf. act., are used extremely rarely, 
and with propriety only in those verbs whose per- 
fect either takes entirely the signification of the 
present, or by indicating a continuous state, will 
admit of being understood in that sense ; e. g. tte- 

7ro$a (I confide), COllj. 7T£7roiSa>, Opt. 7T£7roi$o/r?v. — 
T&vrjKa (I am dead), COnj. t&vt]kio, opt. T&vriKoijui. 

Of the imperat. perf. act. scarcely any trace oc- 
curs in Greek writings. 

(5) The fut. 3. pass, is usual only of a few verbs. 
Verbs liquid, and those which take a temporal 
augment, never form this tense. 



§ 75. (76 II.) 

PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT DIALECTS. 

I. Peculiarities of the elder language generally, 
as preserved in the poets and particularly in the 
Epic dialect. 

1 . On the variation in the formation of single 
tenses, we observe as follows : 

(a) Besides the usual form of the imperf. and 
of the two aor. act. and mid., another also occurs, 
having a lengthened termination and denominated 
Ionic, because it is used also with Ionic prose 
writers. Its peculiarity consists in affixing to the 



234 ETYMOLOGY. 

root £07Cov, €<XKO|ur?i;, instead of ov, Ofxriv, and etcr/cov, 

aatcofx-nv instead of a, a^v, and in omitting the 
augment, with a very few exceptions, which the 
poets allow themselves agreeably to the exigency 
of the verse ; e. g. 

kuXzzgkov instead of kicakzov, 

sAacraoTCg — rjXaas, 

TrOjXeGKO/JLYJV £7rwXou^i7]v, 

CCKJaGKZTO zoaGaro* 

In some instances, with Epic writers, the ter- 
mination ckjkov, otherwise appended only to the 
root of the aor. 1., accedes to the unchanged root 
of the present. In Homer only K^virraaKov and 
pnzraaKov (froniKpu7rrw and joiVtw) are to be observed 
of this kind. The Homeric form ayvwcraaice (as 
should be written for ayvuxKjaaice) is an Epic con- 
traction (comp. § 77. Note 3.) from ayvowaaw, 
and consequently of regular formation. 

With this strengthened form a strengthened or 
intensive signification is also connected, all such 
forms being iterative, i. e. denoting the repetition 
of an action or a custom. 

(b) The perf. 2. is so prevalent in Epic lan- 
guage, that a perf. 1. appears only in verbs pure, 
while all the rest invariably use the perf. 2. Even 
in some perf. 1. k is rejected in Epic, and the 
form by that means assimilated to the perf. 2. ; 
this occurs in the partic. fizfiapnwQ (from the obso- 
lete j3apw), /caaf.)wc (from the unusual radical form 
KCKpU), to breathe with distress), Ktyapw (to x a fy M ? 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN <o.— DIALECTS. 235 

I rejoice), wiwc (from new, lam grieved), tetA^wc 
(from tXtiilu, I endure), and in the 3d pers. plur. 
and partic. of jS^/ca (from j3aivw (I go), scrvica (I 
stand, from icrrr?/ui), Ttfyvm (I am, from ^ww), and 
r^vjj/ca (from SviivKb), I die), but in these always by 
shortening the long vowel before the termination, 

Consequently fie(3aa<Ji, fiefiatog, ZGrauq, 7T£<j)va(Ti, 7T£- 
(pvvla, re&vaai. 

(c) The plusqpf. had originally the termina- 
tion ca, which is universally retained in Epic 
and of which traces yet occur also in the Ionic 
and Attic dialects ; e. g. $&■<* (I knew), Att. contr. 
$&?, 2d pers. fSeac, contr. $&?c and ifiw^a, 3d pers. 
$&s(v), contr. r$a(v), or $§*?. 

(d) Respecting the varied formation of the fut. 
and aor. 1. much is to be observed out of the elder 
language. Verbs liquid, in the first place, whose 
characteristic is X or p, frequently form a fut. with 
a ; e. g. Kelp** (I shear), fut. Kipau), aor. 'Lcspffa, — 
apto (I join), fut. apaw, aor. apaa and ypaa. From 
ksXXcj (I drive) the fut. /ceXctw, and aor. accX-ou have 
retained this formation even in the general lan- 
guage. On the contrary, in Epic the reverse of 
this also occurs, verbs pure forming an aor. with- 
out <t ; e.g. kam (I burn), aor. ejc^q — ffww (I swing), 
aor. £ff<r£uo— ykw (I pour), aor. ^Da or ey^eva (Att. 
?X £a )« As a particular irregularity in the formation 
of single aorists it must be observed that the ter- 
minations of the two aorists are sometimes inter- 
changed with each other, the termination ov being 
appended to the root of the aor. ' 1. (with a) 9 and 
reversely, the termination « to the root of the 



236 ETYMOLOGY. 

aor. 2. The first is exemplified in iWov (from 
TriTTTh), old radical form TreVw), and in the following- 
Homeric forms : 

auaeo (as imperat. aor. mid. of aaSw, I sing). 

a&Tt (as imperat. aor. of a-yw, I lead). 

firiasTo or l/BrVero (3d sing. aor. mid. of j3cuva>, I 
go) ; besides /3//(7£o, as imperat. So also 

Svgeto or £^(7£ro, besides the imperat. Svgso (from 

Svojuai, I put Oil), 

t^ov, T£tQ (as aor. act. of '/kw, I come). 

AfSeo or Xe^o (lie down, as imperat. aor. mid. of 

Xeyw). 

olae (bring, as imper. aor. act. of <p£pt*), old radi- 
cal form o'/w). 

opo-eo (rise, as imper. aor. mid. of opu) or opwpi)* 
Of the opposite case, where the termination a ac- 
cedes to the root of the aor. 2., evidence is afforded 
in the familiar examples J™, besides blttov (I said), 

and rjvey/ca, Ep. ijvuKa OY ivuKa, besides rjVEyicov (as 

aor. to (j>zpu), I bear). — Lastly, in the Epic dialect 
the reduplication of <r, when a short vowel pre- 
cedes, is every where allowed and frequently 
adopted to meet the exigency of the verse; 

€. g. KaXtaaafizvoQ (from /caXIa), I Call), ofxoacre (for 
o^o(7£, from opvvpi, I swear), lyiXafftrs (from ycXaw, 

I laugh), Ko^iiaaa (from Ko/uLilio, I bring). 

2. The necessaryparticulars have been adduced 
above, § 68. II. 2., respecting the licences which 
poets allow themselves in the use of the augment. 
The use of reduplication, confined in the general 
language to the perf. and plusqpf., is extended by 
the Epic dialect to other tenses. This is used 

2 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN w .~- DIALECTS. 237 

most frequently in the aor. 2. act. and mid., less 
so in the fut. 1. act. and mid. ; e. g. ire7n%v and 

TTEiri&jffGJ (from 7T£i^w), rjpapov (from apw), XeXafitOiSai 

(from Xa/xj3avw), Sf^Sojuai (from $£y0P aL )> & c - 

3. The following is to be observed of personal 
and modal terminations : 

(a) The 3d pers. dual imperf. act. is formed by 
Homer in some instances like the second person, 
and consequently has the termination rov instead of 

Ti)v. Such forms are Siw/cerov (II. X. 364), XcKpvaae- 

rov (II. xviii. 583), and rera^rov (II. xiii. 346). 

(b) Besides the terminations ^%v and peSa of 
the dual and plur. pass, the full-sounding pe(j%v 
and fjLeaSa are used according to the exigency of 
verse. 

(c) In the third pers. plur. pass, the perf. and 
plusqpf. very generally, and the optat. frequently, 
substitute the terminations arai and aro for vrai 

and vro ; e, g, KtywpiSaTai (from %tof>i£w), rvirToiaro 

for TVTTTOIVTO. 

(d) In the second pers. sing, of the passive con- 
jugation, the (r, which follows a connecting vowel, 
is rejected; but in that case cat generally, and ao 
frequently, remains without contraction, and the 
termination eo is either uncontracted, or takes the 
Ionic contraction into ev, or the t is even length- 
ened into £i, as e. g. epao (from ipofxai). 

(e) Of the conjunct, the following peculiarities 
are to be observed : (a) the 3d pers. sing. conj. 
act. frequently appends the syllable <n or aiv ; 
e. g. Xafiyaiv and ayyai for \af3rj and ayy. This ap- 
pears to be a relic of the conjugation fu, whose use 



238 ETYMOLOGY, 

was more prevalent in the old language, and it is 
the more certain as some instances also of the ap- 
pended termination pi can be referred to in Homer 
for the 1st pers. conj. ; e. g. ayayw/Lu (II. xxiv. 717), 
iKWfxt (II. ix. 14), f&Aw^i (Od. xxi. 348), Tvyjuyii (Od. 
xxii. 7.) — (|3) Instead of g the 2d pers. sing. conj. 
has generally the more full termination vSa ; e. g. 

&e\rjG%, U7rr)(j%, for eSeXyg, uiryg. — (y) According to 

the exigency of verse, Epic writers often shorten 
the modal vowel of the conjunct, so that £ is sub- 
stituted for i?, and o for w, and the form of the con- 
junct, in many cases assimilated to that of the 
indie. ; e. g. u^ofxev for e'/Sw^v, iop.zv for iw/nev, (j>%Utcu 

for <j>Sir)Tai, &C. 

(f ) In Epic the 3d pers. plur. imperat. both act, 
and pass., is always formed with the monosyllabic 
termin. tojv and o-Swv ; e. g. wivovtwv for ttivztwgclv, 

£TT£(jS(i)V for £7T£<J%W(JaV. 

(g) The complete termination of the infin. act. 
was zfMvai, by the abbreviation of which were 
formed partly tfizv, and, by rejecting p, (cev) uv, 
partly /uevu and vai. In the pres. and fut. 1. infin. 
Homer interchanges the terminations e^ievca, ejutv, 

and uv ; e, g. aicov^iEvai, aKOV^v 3 and atcovuv, a&fiz- 

vai, a&iizv, and aiuv (from ayw). The inf. aor. 2. 
has the terminations zfizvai, kjizv, uv, and iuv ; e. g. 

tX^evai, sASf/iev, tXSeiv (from riX%v), fiaXeuv (from 

|3aXXw). — The inf. perf. is usual with Homer only 
in forms where k has been rejected (comp. above 
1. b.), and always takes with him the termin. pzvai 

Or juev ; e. g. T&vafisvai and T&vafizv, f3e[3aiui£V, eGTajmev* 

Besides the common termination uv of the infini* 

3 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN «.— DIALECTS. 239 

tive, verbs in aw and £w have also coeval, but con- 
tract the € of the termination with the characteris- 
tic vowel into t? ; e. g. fyik&iv, <pi\uv, and ^iXrj^vcu 
(from ^iXsw). — TTuvhpzvai (from Travaw). — The inf. 
aor. pass, has, besides the common termination 

rival, also r)juevai ; £. g*. Sarjvai and §ar)fAZVai (from 

Saw). All the remaining infin., as that of the aor. 
1. act., and the whole of those in the pass., retain 
their simple termination unchanged. 

(h) The terminations which have the circumflex 
in the common language, as w and ov^ai in the 
fut. 2. act. and mid., uv in the inf. aor. 2. act., and 
Co in the conj. of the aor. pass., are in Epic fre- 
quently resolved ; e. g. 

ayyfXfw (as fut. 2. of ayyfXXo)). 

j3aX££tv (inf. aor. 2. of /3aXXw). 

Tn-a-fta-Sai (inf. fut. 2. mid. to ?™Vr&>). 

fuysWi (3 plur. conj. aor. 2 pass, to piyvvjuii). 
In such resolved forms of the conj. aor. 2. pass, it 
not unfrequently happens that the £ is lengthened 
in £i ; e. g. Sapuu (conj. aor. 2. pass, to Sayitaw), and 
also the modal vowel made short (see above, e) ; 
e.g. ^a/uLusre, as 2d pers. plur. to Sajidh). 

(1). On the abbreviation of the termin. v\aav into 
£v, see below, III. 5. 

II. Peculiarities of the (new) Ionic dialect. 

(1) The later Ionic dialect, as exhibited in the 
writings of Herodotus, possesses in common with 
the Epic dialect just treated of, many peculiarities, 
which we therefore shall merely indicate by re- 
ference to the preceding. To these belongs the 



240 ETYMOLOGY. 

use of the terminations arai and aro for vrai and 
vto, (see I. 3. c.) which was more extensive with 
the Ionians than with the Epic writers, being also 
adopted by them in the imperf. and aor. 2. mid., 
in which case however the preceding connecting 
vowel o is changed into e ; e. g. £j3ovAsaro for 

tpov\ovTO, hfMfiyavkaTO for kf.ir)yjxvaovTO, — In the 2d. 

pers. sing. pass, the Ionians after rejecting the <r 
omit contraction (see L 3. d.), but if another £ 
stands before cat and to as the characteristic of the 
verb, the e of the termination is frequently, al- 
though not always, rejected ; e. g. tyofeai for 
fyofikai, <f>ofi£o for <j>o(3ho, &c. The circumflexed 
terminations (see I. 3. h.) are frequently resolved, 
as with the Epic writers ; e. g. w into cw, &c. 

2. The licence assumed by Ionic writers in the 
use of the augment has been already spoken of 
above, § 68. II. 2. 

(3) As distinctive peculiarities of this dialect in 
regard to verbal forms, we merely observe further, 

(a) that verbs mute and liquid, when the last 
syllable of the simple root is long by position, 
frequently insert an £ between the root and ter- 
mination ; e. g. Truleu), pnrriti), av^aWeojuai for 7ueZw, 

plTTTb), (TV/nf3aWofJLai. 

(b) That an a is inserted in the termination 
ero, thereby forming earo, and the 3d. pers. sing, 
thus made to resemble the 3d. pers. plur. ; e. g. 

ZT&taTO for CTiScro, &C. 

III. Peculiarities of the doric dialect. 
(1) The change of r/ into a, so common to the 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN «.— DIALECTS. 241 

doric dialect, occurs in verbal forms in the dual 
termination r?v and the passive termination ^v, 
which in doric are therefore av and pav ; e. g. iKopav 
for lK6fit}v. In like manner this change is usual 
also in the derivative tenses of verbs in dw and of 
some few in ew, which lengthen the characteristic 

VOWel into t\ ; e. g, ayairaati) for aycnT7]Ga>, kfyikaaa for 

£<j>l\ri<ra.— Its occurrence however is extremely- 
rare in the termination w of the aor. pass.— In 
verbs beginning with a the a is retained even on 
the accession of the augment, but is then always 
long ; e. g. 'clkovw, aor. ^a/couo-a. 

(2) The Dorians frequently form the 2 pers. sing, 
indie, in eg instead of tig ; e* g- tvtttzq, avpiZeg for 
tvwtuq, (Tvpl'Ceiq. — Instead of c at the end the second 
person of all the modes of the act. had in the 
old language the termination aSa, which is still of 
frequent use in the doric dialect, and occurs with 
epic writers chiefly in the 2 pers. conjunct., more 
rarely in the optat. (see above, I. 3. e. /3.) The 
common language has retained this termination in 
the following forms : w^a (thou wast, from ufxl) 

rjuaSa (thou Wentest, from el^ui), oi<x$a and fSeioSa 

(thou knowest, knewest, from £$a>) and tyria% 
(thou saidst, from ^1). 

(3) The first person plur. of the active conju- 
gation terminates with the Dorians in peg instead 
of fizv ; e. g. erv7rrojU£c for Itwtojuev. — In the passive 
they likewise use the fuller term. fieoSov and 
fAzo% for fxSov and fieOa (see above, I. 3. b.). 

(4) The 3 pers. plur, act. terminates in Doric 

R 



242 ETYMOLOGY. 

in vti with a short connective vowel instead of <n 
preceded by a long sound ; e. g. 

avciTzWovri for avarzWovcn 
Tpeipovri — — Tptyovat 

TV7TT(i)VTi — - TVTTTWai 

TSTVfyaVTl — — T£TV<f>a<Jl, 

In the fut. 2. the termination eovn is contracted 
by the Dorians into evvn, e. g. fizvkovn, ^vevvti for 
fjLivov<n, from fxkvb). Moreover it is to be remarked 
that this termination vn never receives the v 
s(j>£\kv<jtik6v. — Instead of the termination ovm in 
the pres. and fut. 1. ot<ri also accurs, particularly 
with the poets, which requires the v s^Xkvcttikov ; 

€, g. <j>v\acr(TOiGiv for (pv\a<j<jov<nv« 

(5) The termin. wav in the 3 pers. plur. of the 
aor. pass, and of the optat. is shortened in Doric 
into ev, e. g. ervjSfsv for kv(j>%(jav. This peculiarity 
is common also to the Epic, where, e. g. t rpa^v 
for erpa(j>Y)(jav } and such like forms are quite usual, 
and in the optat. this abbreviated termination 
thoroughly predominates also in the common 
language ; e. g. rvfSi&v for rvtySdriaav. 

(6) The infin. act. instead of the termin. uv has 
in Doric tfizv or generally w 9 and more rarely the 
lengthened yv, e. g. 

TVTTTZV and TV7TT£jU£V for TV7TTUV 

\a(5ev and \afir\v for Xa/3av. 

(7) In the terminations of participles the Dorians 
use in instead of ov, and m instead of a ; e. g. 



OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN «.— DIALECTS. 243 

Tvirroiffa for rvffTOvoa 
Xafiolaa - — Xafioixra 
Tvipaiq and Tv\paiGa for rvipag, acra. 

The partic. perf. act. is sometimes formed by 
the Dorians with the termination of the partic. 
pres. ; e. g. Tr^piKovreg for 7T£^//coTfc» In some in- 
stances Epic writers also adopt this formation ; 

as €. g. KEicXfiyovTSS for Kf/cArJyoTcc. 

(8) On the formation of the fut. 1. act. and 
mid. we observe the following as Doric peculiari- 
ties : (a) all verbs in £w form with the Dorians 
the fut. 1. in £w (see § 70. Note 7.) The same 
peculiarity is transferred also to the aor. 1. (b) 
The termination of the fut. 1. act. and mid. is 
circumflexed by the Dorians and conjugated 
throughout entirely like the termination of the 
fut. 2. ; e. g. 

Tvxpio, uQ y el, plural rvif/ovfiiv OX evpev, Eire, ovvri or 

SVVTl. 

Fut. mid. rvxpov/Jtai Or tv^ai, &c. 

In some verbs which form a fut. mid. with an 
active signification, this fut. has retained the 
Doric termination even in the common language, 

e. g. 7T£(TOl>/Uai and 7T£U<70UjUCU, fut. tO 7Tl1TT(i), and TTVV- 

Savofiat. So also, besides the two named, are 

formed the fut. of Sfw, kAcuo>, v£w, 7rai£a>, ttAou, 7TV£0>, 
Trviyti), $£vyw and \£^w, thus Stvaovpai, KXavaovfxai, &C« 

IV. Peculiarities of the Attic dialect. 

(1) The Epic termination of the plusquamp, c«, 
r2 



244 ETYMOLOGY. 

(see above, I. 1. c.) passed also into the Attic 
dialect, assuming the contracted form in ??, to 
which t}g (for tag) corresponds in the 2 pers, and 
u or uv (for ££ or ££v) in the third. This termina- 
tion however can be referred to with certainty 
only in the plusquampf. to a&o, of which the fol- 
lowing forms are usual with the Attics : 

1 pers. ffiuv and % s 2 pers. $&ie or ^SektSo and 
yfirig or ySrpia, 3 pers. $Sa and $Ssiv. 

(2) In the 2 pers. sing. pass, the Attics after 
rejecting <j contract mi into u. This appears to 
have been the only termination made use of in 
the older Attic language, but subsequently it was 
interchanged with •$?, yet so, that in the fut. 2. 
mid. si is the predominant termination. It ob- 
tains also without change in /3ovXa (thou art wil- 
ling) and olu (thou thinkest), so that the use of 
]3ovXp and o'/p is invariably confined to the con- 
junctive. 

3. On the attic future, see § 73 a . 2. a. 

V. Peculiarities of the Alexandrine dialect and 
of the later language. 

1. In the 3 pers. plur. imperf. and aor. 2. the 
later language makes use of the termination oaav 

instead of ov ; e. g. tiiroaav for zittov, &c. 

2. In the 3 pers. plur. perf. act. the termination 

av OCCUrS instead of a&i ; e. g. aprjKav for eipriicaoi, &c. 



OBS. ON THE CONJ, IN w— ACCENT. 245 



§76. (76. III.) 

ON THE POSITION AND CHANGE OF THE ACCENT 
IN VERBAL FORMS. 

1. The following obtains as a general rule on 
the accentuation of verbal forms : the accent 
recedes as far towards the beginning of the 
root as the number of final syllables and the 
nature of the last syllable admit. Thus in dis- 
syllabic verbal forms the accent stands on the 
penultimate, in the trisyllabic and polysyllabic, 
when the final syllable is short, on the antepen- 
ultimate syllable ; e. g. Xdirw, Xa7rou<n, \u7rtj eXsiiroy, 
\e\ufifiai. 

(2) If a preposition be appended to a mono- 
syllabic root the accent in all forms, where the 
nature of the final syllable admits, passes upon 
the preposition ; e. g. katdXiiitw, KaraXuire. Hence 
when the accent stands upon the augment, and 
this by poetic licence is rejected, it passes in 
that case also upon the preposition ; ifevyov, 

i'ttyzvyov , eicfevyov. 

Note 1. On the contrary if the accentuated augment of a 
simple verb be omitted, the accent passes upon the next sylla- 
ble ; e. g. etytvyov, tyevyov, eXnre, Xltte, tfir), /3f?, 

Note 2. If in dissyllabic verbal forms, having the temporal 
augment, a composition takes place with a preposition, the ac- 
cent cannot fall upon the preposition ; e. g. tlyov^ riyov, trpoGEiypv, 
e£,rjyoi> (for hxov, eayov)* But even in other compounds the ac- 
cent must never be carried beyond the augment ; e, g. 'i<r%ov t 
7tapiay(oy» 

(3) Exceptions from the above general rule on 



246 ETYMOLOGY. 

the accentuation of verbal forms are the fol- 
lowing : 

(a) The infin. and particip. aor. 2. act. are 
always accented on the termination, and the 
infin. aor. 2. mid. always on the penultimate sylla- 
ble ; C g 9 Al7T£lV, AlTTWV, OVGCL, OV, Ai7T£<tScU. 

(b) The 2 pers. sing, imperat. aor. 2, mid. is 
generally accented on the final syllable ; e. g. Aa- 

/3ov, /BaAov. 

Note S. This is the usual, although not the only correct, ac- 
centuation of the imperat. aor. 2 mid., since such forms occur 
also as paroxytone. Still greater fluctuation is exhibited in the 
accentuation of the imperat. aor. 2 act., where the three forms 
el-n-i, tXSe, evpe always, and Xa(3i, IU in attic, take the accent on 
the final syllable, while the rest on the contrary appear as bary- 
tone. It must further be observed as remarkable herein that 
the whole imperat. of the aor. 2., both in the act. and mid. draws 
back the accent from the final syllable, on a preposition being 
appended to the root ; e. g. ewikaSov (from XaS-ou), eijeXSe (from 
iX-S-e 7 ). 

(c) The infin. and particip. perf. pass, are al- 
ways accented on the penultimate ; e. g rerv^ai, 

7T£7raiO£ucr&ae, r^rvfifikvog^ Tmrai^evfJiivog* 

(d) All infinitives with the termination vai are 
accented on the penultimate. In the conjugation 
to these comprise the infin. perf. act. and the in- 
fin. aor. pass., e, g. rtrvtykvai, TV(p%r)vai, Tvrri]vai. 

(e) The infin. aor. 1. act. and the pers. sing. 
optat., which terminates in ot or at, have the ac- 
cent always on the penultimate ; e. g. inf. KuXvaai, 

$v\a<^ai f Opt. KtoXvoi, KwXvcrai, <^uAa£cu. 

Note 4. In polysyllabic roots and in verbs pure having a 
long vowel before the termination, the three similar forms of 
the infin. and 3d, pers. sing. opt. aor. 1. act, and the 2d. pers. 

6 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN o. 247 

sing, imperat. aor. 1. mid. can be distinguished by the accent ; 
e.g. 

inf. aor. 1. act. 3d. sing. opt. 3d. sing, imperat. mide 
^>v\a£ai (pvXafai <pv\alai 

iroirjtrai Troirjcrai Tvoi-qaai. 

In monosyllabic roots, as e. g. in Xe'yw, this distinction entirely 
fails. 

(f) Participles ending in ug and o>c are oxytone ; 

(g) The femin. and neutr. particip. of the active 
retain the accent on that syllable, whereon it 
stood in the mascul., but they change its sign 
according to the nature of the accented and 
the succeeding syllables; e.g. <j>vXarrwi>, ^vXarrouo-a, 
^wXarrov (not (j>v\aTTov, as might be expected).— 

iraiSevwv , iraiSevovcra, TraiSevov—T&vnKWQ, rzdvr)Kvia 9 teS- 

VY)KOQ. 

(h) In the fut. 2. act. and mid. and in the fut. 
attic, the terminations w and ovfxai are circum- 
flexed, as being formed by contraction from iw 
and iofiau The same happens in the conj. aor. 
pass. ; e. g. tv^w. 



§77. 

CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN a,. 

(I) When one of the three vowels a, e, o stands 
before the termination o> of the present, the At- 
tics always contract it in the pres. and imperf. 
act. and pass, with the concurring temporal ter= 
mination. 



248 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2) This contraction takes place according to 
the given rules (see 21.) of contraction, but with 
a few exceptions, the reason of which will admit 
of being explained in the succeeding paradigms, 

(3) All the other tenses are formed by these 
verbs regularly and without contraction ; wherein 
it is further to be observed, that in the deriva- 
tive tenses the short characteristic vowel mostly 
changes into the corresponding long one, conse- 
quently a and g into n s but o into w. 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 249 























C3 






















■5 








*3 


* 

o 


* ! 

o I 


o 

1ft 

c 


ft 
O 
l- 
13 
O 


ft 

1ft 15> 

o o 


-a 

b 

ift 

o 










b 


i 












Cu 




















i 










,_H i 














C 


3 






3 
b 


b 




ft 
o 


ft 

o 
t* 

v o 

en 

b 


en <n 

b b 


b 

ft 
o 

^£ 

is 


pS « 

C 3 


.i 






3. 


1 


2. 


5. 


s. 


3- 3. 


3. 


Is 


i 




















m G> 




















'5 e 


a 






• 3 


i-5f 


•> 1 


ft 

o 

lb 


ft 
o 

w 


ft 

3. w 

tft ,l- 

o l s 


b 

ift 

o 


2'Z 


^2 






o 














J] pQ 








pAid 

C5 




i 


i 




« i 


i 


§1 


"Si 

ss 

2 

•** 


> 

o 

< 


G 
Qi 

EC 

<D 

J- 

a. 


w 3 

O 


O 


a I 

v s 1 

© 


ft 

o 
t. 

o 


ft 

O 
w 

O 


ft 

IU 

S 5 


b 

ft 

© 


o £ 

73 8 

02 


.<*> 




















05 


55 




















o v 


&■ 












ft 


ft 


ft 




.S o* 


a 






2 c 


i 


T 1 


o 

l 


o 

18 

l 


i i 


b 
13 

i 


SS.-G 








o 

G 
















Q 






o , 














iu *S 


5k 






*G 














"O es 


S3 












ft 


ft 


ft 


™» 


«*«. a 


1 






*3 


to 

3. 




o 

u» 

3, 


© 

kg 


§■ g 

»>3 <>B 

S- 5*. 


b 

ft 
o 

"3 
3. 


SI 

s s 

4-2 *J 








g o? 




-Q 




Ok 




§.£ 








• i-H 














CJ 






















'3'? 








o 














5 ^ 








• I-* 














S2 O 








T3 














3 o 








G 


































s ps 






















-S « 






















b^ Q; 






















. -5 



250 ETYMOLOGY. 



.*£. i .i.i.i-.s.s ^'s's I 's-8 



(Ti o o 






O O ^ w S St - 

»l *r*f i v| sf -J *s J $ ** s ■ <M 

in mil 3- t=L **- 



Oil ll"9' fc 



h 






o p 5 « b 

1 Jr 1 Jj 4 

III e § I § s s 6 6 fe * 8 



o» i i- »• 3" s. -a S o o o o js 

r;* jr~sf J 4 4 4 11 'li| 



03 



3-ii *■ i 



o * 
& c i fe. fe 3 & 3 o o o v § o 



» 3 i^i^ 


i 


O 
l- 


o 


3- *- 
»3 ^ 


»3 


3- i • 

4- 




8 


i 


i » 


i 



Hi i iif ii ill'! 



it- 



g DQ Q *" > CQ 

§ u 

I* 
o 

U 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN „. 251 



s w ft 

o o o 



§ S 



=3. I, 



3. 



ft t-t © C" 

Softer »- £ =3. c 

o o 5 <£ .5" -5" -2" -§" ^ ^ »■ .§ 



.3- 

o 



3 

8 • 






3r C ft 

o 'o o 



N t b 



o o ^s 
-w sv o o o o 5 5 

* *'£ I i I 1 



3-*3- 
• i 



o o 



3 

8 *8 



o o S 

^8 *8 sg 

3- 3- =4. +3 



ft ft a 

* -if * *■ * *•, fc 



5 -S §* > *$*"3* 3^3^3-*3- 8 ^8 



3-3-3-3-3-3.3-3. 



m 



ft 



02 






CJ3 



3 '£ 



e/i o a; » 

"Mi 

g**° 

lies 

° g 3.S 

2 g fi S 

£ a « 
I §|' 5 

.5 S I g 
§3 

>> >» 

II 

£ 3 

O X 

B • 

.55 bJD 



.. 


<u 


^3 


*-> 


>^3 


H 


-bJ 




°§£ 


,o 




p 


09 


V 


a 


„o 


o 




u 


o 


o 



toe® 



13 

«S o 

o ft 



CL..B ft rG 
qj <D P-i » 

111! J 

5 •»••"* .2 



*"■ eg cs -Q m 



r^2 «« 2 
W U W j_» 



C/3 3J 



o o jS§ 

5 O O <U 

S3 -a 63 '43 »-" 

A "C cs a 3 

= « s «s ■= 



252 ETYMOLOGY. 



ft 



£ .si 

ft ft * ,-.5 



i i « 1 | ,i ft ,i «| I o> i s e .1 a 

'8 '§ '§ ^8 V § 4 '° 3 8 o I o o .9 

© ' 3 * 3 £ ft ft" £ v3 § tf « fc *5 S ^ 



«Mu 



"g^H^^I 1-1-3 ' ' ll^f 

1 3 1 3. 2. 2. =L 5- .fi-.3-.iu -w -«* ^~ 

*g GO 

ft . OJ . 

£ o ft ft Si • M 

3^3,^^^ § H 1 - 1 «b -b £»*• &, 

*s -a *s s S s ^2 ° ° §777 .S^sT 

' ',:■• V'gg '" 1X8 

ft s t» 

ft x o *© fi ° ® ^ ^ 22 w^ 

es fl S 
.9.2 O 

g ft i a 8 S * 

o3w3t a g^ft I ^ - S b « §- « 

3- ■ -. w. • • * * * - *S a/ Sj 

» • ' • « £; e ■ -c? cgJ'C 

§ *T s ^ 

« ft -8 ^ A 8 § I- a 1* 

blvul^ftft".^ g .s? :■; ;, t •* "35 

<S ^S vS Tfil 1 ! .1^.1 l 3- §■ | "^ 

a. =t a. 3. a. *C _fc C ± ± 9 w 



§ i . 1 1 , ;•> 

*• *- »" ^Jr: *o S 3 

g- I- I" I" t §" t C -*■*■« -- =| £ 

q cl 'a .a «» fi .-2°l 

-§.s 

o 'is 

•* S 5 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 253 



5- *• £ 

13 IP 3 

O o O 



^ W «v 

O w O 

\o v o o 

OJ crt <n 

b b b 

.a. 3.^3. 



b 

13 I- 

£ ° 



o * * « 

** <n J? J5 <Tt w b 

*• =L b b a. b 3 

13 vp 13 >3 <0 13 13 

o o o o o © o 



s 

I- 



Ssi *- 



I 

o *>© v © 






o v © 






a. a. 3. 3. 3. 



«J H* "J "J 

3. a. 3. a. 



hi 



8 

I- p. 

*0 *>© 
b b 

3. 3. 



a. 

13 

O 



3 

2 >»>$ 1 '1 *S v § l S 

S • • 8 • • ' ' 



8 

,1- 



1 3 i sa. i p. 



3 






0> 


3. 




3 


> 


O 


<jj 


O 


02 


UJ 


•^w 


^tu 


W 


3 


© 


"o 


S3 


k 

yj 


fc 


^N 


Ah 



J 5* -s « 
a. «. 2 a. b <n =L b 



o o o 
N t= 1= 



-IU ».lu ««lu 

poo 

fc fc fc 



3, £ 



1 « 

i3 »«-i^ 



3 

VJ 

^3 



o &i w 
i<3 



a.*? ^ ^"b 3 1 g 
£ ,§ i§ -3i§ i3 '3 «a-iS 

• t i • i i r ' » 



=5- u * 
2 5 o 

k b vg « 

3- =^3- 
*- E I. 



3 

O ?x 3 a 

- «a Oy O © (Ti w 

>CJ *« v53 Ci vg v« 6 v b 



1 5 

'b ^cs ^b 
3-3-3- 

*- w P 



Ph 



S 02 



9? w 



cS 
o 

^ 
fl 



C5" 

o 
O 



254 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ S * >S , - 

crt J? o cJ? i; c 

a. b b a. b ?> 

*3 »3 13 v 3 »3 13 

• 1 1 « 1 1 



ft 

55* 



o % & 

O o o 



cf<3 cH £ 

-s .3..S ,* 

©00© 



o ft ft 5i ** 

5- b b 5- b ft 
-3 r- s- v 3 sc 3 

<?? <Tt Ot <3g <Tt &l 

b b b b b b 

a. a. 5. 3. i. 1 



1 

ft 

R" 

-t 2 

O so 



§ ft 

c °l <£ 

1- =L to 

000 
*!5 J3. *£ 

Crt <Xt C^t 

to b b 



at s. 3. a. a. 



<rt i5 crt v- 

00S0 

o >o v o 

<£ Crt <xt ere 

b to b to 

3. a. 3. 5. 



O ft ft s - 

Crt © O «5 W » 

a. to to a. b ft 

*3 1? ir» ^3 i?=- »3 



ft 

{=* 

.3-1 2 

© 



crt crt 



crt 



*" =L t b b ^a. 4 b t ft 



P * » J? 

a? © o Crt w 

a to b ^a. b 

*3 s- r- v 3 r- 



o o o o 
fc fc fc N 



ft 

a. 



© ft ft a 
o °l & £ °Z c 



a. b 



a. b 



© © © 
fc N n 



©00 
fc fc fc 



§ ft ft « - 

Crt © o Crt w « 

w crt crt «* crt ^ 

a> 6 to a, 6 r 

*-3 »« *s v 3 »s '3 

1 1 1 1 1 1 



ft eX> P 55* (tt W © 

5*' o °& crt & °l Crt 1- 

a. , o 1- ={_toto a.b ft 

3- l 3" • 3- -3- * 30 -3^ ^ » 3- * 3- 
3": • I . * 1 1 1 » .< 1 



O J* ft 8 - 

crt o o <Xt ^ a 

a. t> t> a. t> $ 

^3 R- R" v 3 R* 3 

3-3-3-3-3-3- 

U V 1- W V> ¥• 



© ft ft « 

~ Crt © R" Crt w O 

5°^ O £ Crt Crt w Crt l- 

.3-2 b ^3- to ^to ^a. b ft 

2 .2 2 "S © *o © © § 
3-3-3-3-a.3.a.^a. 

K I- I- t. b |. I- fi *■ 



> 



c3 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 255 



«5> to to 

>S xS> l £ 

S i i 



ft 
*B <* <£ 

S to b 



a 
ft 5 

<? <? <? 

*§ '§ v § 



ft 

53 

ft to 

^ ^ ^ 

J J J 
<? <B 4 



to 

o 



4 



1 H i i 



8 
to 

O 



i 



o 

i 

I 

o 

>£ 



ft 

v 5 »S> »2> 

to i 8 



i 

*!: S, i 

>S *£ ^£ 
<y* &t <?* 

to to to 

3- .'1..95. 





O 

6 


1 


o 

w 




b 

w 




8 


to 

^to 

ft 


ft 

3 

^to 

8 

o 


Ml 

53 

% 

O 


o 

ft 

.1- 

O 

o 

8 




8 










8 






o» 








ft 

o 


ft 




to 


ft 


«i 


o 






3 


J 


w 


3 


3 


J5 


ft 




O 
O 


O 


© 


b 

O 


1 

© 


to 

o 


o 


O 


i 




fc 


fc 


fc 


fc 


N 


N 


N 


fc 














ft 






• 














8 


« 




o 








ft 
b 


ft 




to 


ft 


••» 


^ 




"1 


4 


b 


J2 


4 


4 


4 


1 




"3 
I 




"8 

8 


i 


"8 
i 


"8 
O 8 


»8 


i 














ft 




8 




t 










8 






o» 






2* 


ft 




to 


ft 


o 


o 






3 


o 


3 


<« 


3 


3 


M 


ft 




» 


b 


1 


4 


4 


"g 


I 


•% 






o 


"W 


w 


•*w 


w 


"W 


•^w 


w 


»o 




*8 


8 


"8 


8 


"8 


53 


53 


"53 


53 




2» 


1 


I 


1 


3- 


3- 

»- 


5. 






ft 


, 




. 




• 






• 


• 


C3 
> 


5» 




Q 




Pu 






CD 

.£ 




03 
















• l-H 

S3 


*o 


*H 
















• ft 


Q.< 
















tC 




ft 
















fi 


c3 


s 
















>— ( 


Ph 



2 o 



4J ' 



?-4 



ft 

£ * s 

k o o C 

OOO 

N J= N 



o 

3 18 



5. => S 

■o o S 

8 "8 -8 

3-3-3- 

C 1- it 



m 



256 



ETYMOLOGY. 



O * > 8 

en o s* en Jt o 

w en <n w en u 

i,.b.-b.-i-"b S • 

«2> i5> v3 v5> O !5> o CO 



O O O © O o 
1 I I 



QJ 

o 
55 

£ -^ ^ * o * > « « bT 

3 <£ ft 3 <£ k a.-b k, 4 b,l>lb,» £ 



vf- S ^ *© S o 3 3 3 ^3 3 3 ^3 3 3 & 

o v o o o^o^o ftftftftftftftftft o 

<J? <n d? (3? <^ ^ bbbbbbbbb 

1-. K l^ l-v h K *■•! ■•■«■» •»■* "9? *">* *"?4 ■"* S 



b S S S 2 5 "3. ~3. "1 1 "a. "3. 1 "1 "3. £ 

m 



O «v J^ 8 

ft 5 s- ft iu 2 <i> 

-% -I -§ v § •§ *s « 



o a a s 

^3 i§ *s ^3 *S »3 






£ * * H ^ O * > « J° 

© A <a 5$ pi •» *a ,j, sr% O O (T> W a • 

«^ s s- ft w ? % « o c °i (^ ^ w <J? £ a> 
<!■■. S -S "§-• S § T! .2- ~S* .5" v 2" ~5~ -2" v 2" -2" .2" g 

«5^www^w^ w (UOOOOOOOOO S 2 * 

©ooooSCLNfckNfcfcfcNfc 



p* 



o 



ft o p<^ J» 'O s-^ftojjft^e ~ 

=S- b b 3- b > =LbJ-=Lbb=Lb^ S 

8 ^8 8 2 g "« =i, ^ S S § S^ 8. 3. §_ 

3-3-3-3-2-5- i-fc-i-CEii-i-i-i- >d 

~\u +m +** +vt *\n *\u |« \* fr. |- t- b t» l» t» ^ 

;g ^ 

^ o 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN cu. 257 






^ >^ 



3 1 1 1 if J J 41 t J 4 <%j 

| | | :■ | o 1 1 . f , 3L 1 | .9- S | 

■*• < 3. 3. ^ a_ „cj- a» -s- «jj- a_ a. a. *w 

'3 

CD 

< g 

S? CD b 

- o S > ' . a a * 






a 



lit II •Bl!4||^i|il If 



a 





CD 














. 


H 














o 


CD 


•al 












P £ 




b 












3 a § 


<l 


b 






^ i b 
<Ti ^S *£■ 

3- a. C 

u u t 


«* 


> 


o <n <n vC 
b b b =L 

^ a_ a. =l 
i- c e £ 

W UJ UJ LU 

i- i- i- £ 




^ a 

v ^ a 


a 

s- 

VJ 

t- 


UJ 

uu 


a 

§• 

b 

a. 


^a 
b 

?r 

a. 


CD CD CD 




f-H l— -t 


o 




^ ^ CO 


_; 


f— 1 






+5 s-3 




CD 


^ 4-» 4J 


■*-> 


tz 


pera 

nfini 
artic 




3 o 


*-i 


O 3 3 


3 


O 




Ph <3 


CD 


2 


<l Ph Ph 


pt* 


<5 


S ~ pu 















258 ETYMOLOGY. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



(1) In the common language the tempora se- 
cunda of these verbs are wanting, and only a few 
traces of them occur even in the older language. 

(2) For the more accurate definition of the rule, 
that verbs contract lengthen the characteristic 
vowel in derivative, namely, a into ??, &c, the fol- 
lowing remarks must be added : 

(a) Verbs in aw almost invariably lengthen the 
characteristic vowel in the derivative tenses ; but 
when a is preceded by an c, or t, or p, they then 
take not r? but long a ; e. g. 

Sato (I permit) fut. £a<xw aor. 1. eidaa. 

£GTiau) (I entertain) fut. itma&to aor. I. uariaaa, 

^paw (I do) fut. fyaato aor. 1 . iSpdaa. 

Xpaw, y^paofiai alone takes an n, when p precedes. 
On the contrary, azpoaopai (I hear), and fiasacoino 
(I am senseless), take long a instead of v ; e. g. 
aKpodaofiai, &c. The following verbs are to be 
observed as individual exceptions, retaining the 
short a in the derivative tenses ; -ycXaw, ^afiato, 

cXafe), epctjuai, SXaw, iXaw, Ifiduy, Ktpao), ic\ai*), Kpe/naio 

(in the transitive sense). Traojucu, cntdw, and %aXa&>, 

thus fut. yeXacTk), Sa/xacrw, IXaffw, &C 

(b) Of verbs in £ 'w, the following retain in the 
derivative tenses the £ unchanged : ai&ofiai, cikzo- 

fxai, aXato, ap/cfo), kfxkuy, Z,zw 9 kuXktt), $£(0, reXfw, rptw, 
thus iut. ai^eaofiai, dicscrofxai, &C. 

Other verbs in £o> take the long vowel in some 
tenses, while in others they retain the short one. 
These are as follow : 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN w . 259 

aiv£(*> (I praise) fut. alvkan) aor. 1. yvtva perf. f«a 
aor. 1. pass. yve%v perf. pass, yvrifiai. The Epic 
forms are aiyj)^, &c. 

atptw (I take) retains the short vowel only in the 

aor. 1. pass, ypiSriv. 

&w (I bind) has in the fut. Srjcrw aor. 1. (Sqaa, 
but in the perf. S&eKa perf. pass. Sc&juai aor. 1. pass. 

ttoSIu) (I desire) interchanges according to the 
difference of dialects between tto^ctw and 7to%<joj 9 
&c In the perfect only it always takes rj, ttstto- 

Six verbs in ew, all implying a continuous mo- 
tion, change the characteristic into eu in the fut., 
namely, &w (I run), v£<*> (I swim), ttAew (I sail), 
TTvew (I blow), pw (I flow), yfu (I pour), fut. $ev- 

aovfxai (see § 75. III. 8. b.), 7rA£u<xw, pEvaoj, &C. 

(c) In verbs in ow, the short vowel is retained 
in the derivative tenses only by apou (I plough), 
fut. apoo-w, and opoh) (obsolete radical form to 

b^ivvfxi) aor. <o (.10 era. 

(3) The conjunct, and optat. perf. pass, which 
were formerly adduced in verbs contract as formed 
independently, appear only in single traces of tri- 
syllabic perfects, particularly of those which have 
a present signification, chiefly of kzktv/ucii (I pos- 
sess, /crao/icu), ju^uvr^icu (I remember, fM[wn<rKa>) 9 /cl- 
KXrijuiai (I am called, KaXew) ; e. g. 

KEKTV/iiai COllj. K£KT(*)/J.ai Opt. KeKTy[lY)V and KEKTWfXYlV, 
WO, lf>TO, &C. 

^uE/uvrjjuat COnj . /uf^uvwjucu Opt. fitfxvypriv and /lie/xv^uijv, 

WO, WTO, &C. 

s 2 



260 ETYMOLOGY. 

Moreover, in verbs contract also, the conj. and 
opt. perf. pass, are formed by compounding the 
particip. with uvai. 

(4) On the application and neglect of contrac- 
tion, the following rules obtain : the Attics use 
exclusively the contracted form. In verbs in lw 
only, whose root is monosyllabic, contraction does 
not take place, if e is followed by one of the 
dull sounds o, w, or, ou, or by an r? ; e. g. ttXIw, 

7r\siq, 7rAa, 7rXarov, but 7r\zofjisv, 7t\eov<ji, ttXewcti, 

TrXq?, &c. An exception is formed by Sew (I bind), 
which is contracted even on a dull sound follow- 
ing ; e. g. Uoiwi, Soviim. On the contrary, the 
Ionians adopt contraction in verbs in aw and dw, 
but not in those in toj. The peculiarities of the 
remaining dialects, in respect to contraction, see 
below, 6. 

(5) Some verbs in aw take rj instead of a in con- 
traction. This invariably happens in Jaw (I live), 
wtivatjj (I am hungry), ^i^auj (I am thirsty), xp ao ~ 
/Liat (I use) ; e. g. 

tact), £t/c, Zy, dual. Zmov, Znrov, plur. fr^ucv, £>}r£, 
Zwm, inf. Zyv, imperf. iZw, ifa, iU, &c. 

In KvaiD (I rub), (Tfxao) (I smear), ^aw (I scour), 
this, although not the only one in use, is the com- 
mon mode of contraction. 

(6) As peculiarities of the different dialects in 
the use of verbs contract, we observe the follow- 
ing : 

(a) The Epic dialect adopts or neglects con- 
traction according to the exigency of verse. Here- 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN w . 261 

in the following must be observed on the single 
classes of verbs contract. 

(a) in verbs in £&>, if £ is followed by the dull 
sounds w } io, oi, and ou, contraction does not take 
place ; but if another sound follows, it is partly- 
omitted, partly applied, and £o is then contracted 
into eu. Frequently also £ is lengthened into a, 
with the omission of contraction ; e. g. -rcXa'a, 

cteXhsto (from teXe'w), TfXa'av and Sa'av for 7r\&iv 

and Skiv. In Epic, the termination tai of the 2d 
pers. sing. pres. pass, is not contracted into y, but 
either remains in the resolved form, e. g. (j> L \Uai 9 
or the e of the root is contracted with the £ of the 
termination into a, e. g. juuSaeu for [ivSkai, or one 
£ is rejected, e. g. julvSwi. In the 2d person sing, 
impf. and imperat. either a> is contracted into a/, 
or, as most frequently happens, an £ is rejected ; 

e. g. alrko, 6of3eo for airao, <J>oj3££o. 

(/3) Verbs in ow are either contracted in the 
usual manner, or they neglect contraction, and 
change the characteristic vowel o into w ; e. g. 
virvbiovraQ (from vttvow), &c. Also some forms in 
these verbs, as in verbs in aw (see under 7), ex- 
hibit a lengthening of the sound, which presup- 
poses a contracted form, and generally takes 
place with ow and ow ; e. g. 

apoucn for apoovai, apovai, 
§r\ioh)VTO iOr ^rjioovro, or/iouvro, 

<$Y)i6(j)ZV for §1]l6oi£V, S?]lOt£V. 

(7) Verbs in aw occur in Epic without contrac- 
tion only in individual cases, chiefly when the root 



262 ETYMOLOGY. 

is monosyllabic, or the characteristic vowel a is 
long ; e. g. i\P aE (fr° m XP" W )> <W^ WV (from Si^aw), 

and from vaicraco, vaceraouai, vatfraovra, &C. Ill ge- 
neral, however, these verbs undergo contraction, 
and then again the contracted sound is frequently 
lengthened, a similar and, for the most part, short 
sound being inserted before it ; e. g. 

opdn) contr. opto, Epic lengthened form op6i*> 

< f + r r 

opauq ooaq — opaaq 

opatazai — • OjOcktScu opaaaziai 

opaoipii —— op(i)fxi " opowjut. 

Whether a Ions* or short vowel must be insert- 
ed, is determined by the nature of the word and 
by the relation of the syllables to the metre. The 
short sound is inserted when the preceding sylla- 
ble is short, as in all the above examples ; on the 
contrary, the long sound enters where a long 
syllable is essential to the metre, consequently 
chiefly in the middle of more longs ; e. g. 

/xvaecr%iCOlLit. fivaa^ai, Epic lengthened form jmvaaa%i 

i 7 

jUEvoivasi /uzvoiva — fizvoivaa 

fjpaovaa — rjfiwaa rifitjojaa. 

In rare instances, and only in certain forms of 
individual verbs, the inserted sound follows that 
of the contraction. This happens only in the 
mingled sound w, when succeeded by vr, and in w, 
which is then lengthened into woi ; e. g. 

vfiaovTtq COIlt. rjfiwvrec, Epic length, form i)(3ujijvt£Q 
cpaoifxi - — c>pw/tfi " c)pii)oi/jLie 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 263 

Note 1. In Epic the third pers. dual in ty]v of some verbs con- 
tracts aa into y\ ; e. g. Trpoaavh'iTi]v (from Trpocravdau)). This con- 
traction occurs in the same form of two verbs also in ew, 
namely, in aireiXiirriv (from &7r£i\ew) and bfiaprt'iTqv (from 6/j.ap- 
reV). Also an rj enters into infinitives of verbs in aw and sw, 
formed with the termination [levai ; e. g. yorjfAevai, TrEunjfizvai 
(from yodio, TEivdu)) ; so also (piX-tifiEvai (from (piXiw), &c. 

Note 2. The forms of the imperf. in some verbs change with 
Epic writers a into e ; e. g. \ievoiveov (from [lEvoivdio), ojiokXeov 
(from dfioicXdco), rjyreov (from aVraw). On the farther extension 
of this usage by the Ionians, see below, b. 

Note 3. In some verbs in od(o, the Ionic contraction of orj into 
(o (see below b.) occurs also in the Epic language ; e. g. knifiio- 
cojiai for E7rt[3or](TO[iaL (from £7rt/3octw). 

(b) With the Xonians verbs in lw for the most 
part omit contraction, except that they frequently 
contract co and wv into eu ; e. g. iroiev for woiov, 7roiev- 
juevoc for 7roto^£voc. Also in Ionic, as has been 
shown above (a. a) in the case of the Epic dialect, 
an £ is frequently rejected in the 3d pers. sing. 
impf. pass. In verbs in ow the lonians make use 
of the contracted sound £u instead of ou ; e. g. !&- 
KaUvv for $iKaiovv (from Sucaiot*)). Moreover, they 
also adopt the usual contractions in verbs in ow. 
Verbs in aw are likewise regularly contracted by 
them, although they frequently choose n instead 
of a as the mingled sound of contraction ; e. g. 
opriv for ooav, this particularly happens if an i pre- 
cedes ; e.g. %fJLir]Tai y irjaSai for %/utarai, laaSai. But 

in many cases the a of these verbs changes in Ionic 
into £, and contraction is then omitted ; e.g. <j)oite<jj 
for tpoiTaoj, epwTEov for tpwTaov, &c. They frequently, 
however, adopt the contraction of ao into w, and 
insert an additional s before the mingled sound ; 



264 ETYMOLOGY. 

e. g. yjpzwvTcu for yjptovTai (from y^pao/uiai), t/crswvro 

for ektujvto (from Kraojiai), &c. As therefore verbs 
in aw become in this manner verbs in e'w, they also 
can admit of contraction into ev (consequently for 

ao and aou) ; €. g. uptoTtvv for eipwrwv, ayaTrzvvTEQ for 

aycnru>vTEQ. It is remarkable, that the Ionians, with 
whom the resolved form predominates, should 
adopt contraction in certain cases where the Attics 
reject it. This happens in the derivative tenses 
of verbs in oaw, where or) is contracted into w ; 
e. g. (3w(tw, £j3 wora for /3ori<TGi>, fj3o?jcm (from j3oaw), 
apfiuGciQ for ava/3ori<rac. The Epic prolongation in 
verbs in aw and ow is only seldom used by the 
Ionians. 

(c) The Doric dialect has the mingled sound 
£u, contracted from to and zov, in common with 
the Ionic ; e. g. ttoizvvti for wouovai, Dor. ttoieovti 
(see § 75. III. 4.) — In verbs in aw the Dorians 
contract ao, aov y and aw into a ; e. g. Tnivajxu: for 

TruvaojLuv, COlltr. 7r£iviofi£v, TTUvavrt for Tretvaovcn COntr. 

7rfivw(Tt. On the contrary it is worthy of remark 
that ae and au are contracted by them not into a 

but into 7} ; €, g. cpr? and hpyv for epa and epav, ro\- 

jn??re for Tokfiarz.' — Also verbs in fw take the Doric 
infinitive termination nv contr. from £»jv (com. § 
75. III. 6.) ; e, g. kog^v for icoo-^av. 

(d) On the JEolic dialect nothing can be ad- 
vanced with safety on account of the few and 
uncertain traces of its usage. A particular in- 
finitive form of verbs in aw and ow with the termi- 
nations ate and oic is given as a peculiarity be- 
longing tO it ; €. g. ykXaiq for ytXav, v\poiQ for tyovv. 



CONJUGATION IN p. 265 

(7) With respect to the accent in verbs con- 
tract, attention must be paid to the rules laid 
down (§ 76.) on the accentuation of verbal forms 
together with the general observations on the 
change of the accent in contraction. 



Conjugation in fu. 

§ 78. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

(1) As the chief peculiarity of this conjugation, 
the temporal and personal terminations are an- 
nexed to the root immediately (i. e. without the 
aid of a vowel), (comp. § 62. 3.) 

(2) The conjugation in /it exists only in the 
pres. and imperf. act. pass, and mid., and in the 
aor. 2. act. and mid. 

(3) Only few Greek verbs admit of a complete 
inflexion according to this conjugation. With 
the exception indeed of ri%^t, i'crr^u, S/Sw/u and 
iripi adduced in the sequel, there is no verb ex- 
tant, which forms the three above-named tenses 
completely to this conjugation, but it comprises 
throughout only individual verbal forms derived 
from roots, which in general are otherwise in- 
flected according to the conjugation w. 

(4) Even those verbs which, in the tenses 
specified, belong to this conjugation, nevertheless 
not only form their remaining tenses according to 
the conjugation w, but often possess collateral 



266 ETYMOLOGY. 

forms, borrowed from the conjugation w, even in 
those tenses. For every verb in pi, therefore, 
we must endeavour to ascertain a simple root 
belonging to the conjugation w, 

(5) The correct process herein is to cut off 
the termination pi, to shorten the preceding long- 
vowel, and then to append the termination w. 

(6) At the same time, however, it must be ob- 
served, that several of the verbs in r^i and w,iu 
receive an accession also in the beginning. This 
consists in the repetition of the first consonant of 
the root united with an i, or, when the root 
commences with a vowel or with two consonants, 
in a simple i» 

(7) The case is different with respect to verbs 
in v/m. In these the whole termination v/m, to- 
gether in general with a preceding v, which is 
doubled when following a vowel, constitutes an 
appendage, by which a strengthened form is ob- 
tained for the pres. and imperf. An aor 2. is 
wanting to these verbs, because they never take 
a reduplication ; but all the other tenses are 
formed from the primitive according to the con- 
jugation w. It must further be observed, that 
even the pres. and imperf. interchange the forms 
in vfii and uw. 

Note 1. Forms of the aor. 2. as ehw and eyw do not belong 
to the analogy of verbs in v/it, of which we are here speaking, 
but are formed anomalously from verbs in vw, wherein v belongs 
to the root. 

(8) By an attention to the points adduced, 
verbs in f.u will admit of easy change into a form 



CONJUGATION IN p. 267 

in a), and reversely verbs in w into forms in yi ; 



e.g. 



of Ti^^ti the root in w is Sew 

> — 'irffxt - - cw 

— $i<!)U)IM - - Sow 

— Scfovpf - - AEIKQ 

■ KOpEVVV/iU - - KOPEQ, 

Problem. To what roots can iriirXv^h $wh yvu>fii f 
^vjui be referred ? and what are the forms in fxi, 
which may be deduced from Trpau), gtcioj, 71-raw, and 
the forms in vvfxi from 'ArQ and 2KEAAQ ? 

(9) The following are to be observed as pe- 
culiar personal terminations for this conjugation : 

pres. 1st. pers. sing, pi, 2d. pers. e, 3d. pers. <n (v) 

imperat. 2d. pers. sing. %i, 

imperf. and aor. 2., 1st. pers. sing. v. 

(10) The lengthened characteristic vowel is 
retained before the personal terminations in the 
singular of all the three tenses of the active, and 
also in the dual and plural of the aor. 2. with the 
exception of r/S^e, U/m and Si'Swju, which in the 
dual and plural of the aor. 2. retain the short 
radical vowel. The passive and middle through- 
out take only the short vowel before the termina- 
tion. 

(11) The remaining modes of the conjugation 
jut are formed in the following manner : 

(a) The conjunctive has the ending w, pass. 
wfiai, into which the short radical vowel is always 
dissolved, as already appears from the circumflex 



268 ETYMOLOGY. 

on this termination, and is further proved more 
clearly by the inflection, wherein the radical 
vowels £ and a undergo contraction with r? of the 
conjunctive termination into ri, the radical vowel o, 
on the contrary, with r\ of the conjunctive termi- 
nation into w ; e. g. law, yg, y, &c. (from iaTtipi), 
&Sw, ii)q, it) (from SiSio/uiij. 

(b) The optative has the termination rjv, pass. 
wv preceded by an i, which is united with the 
short characteristic vowel into a diphthong, so as 
to form the terminations aV, alriv, oinv, pass, a'^v, 
aljuLtiv, oi}.it]v according to the difference of the 
characteristic vowel. 

Note 2. Verbs in vfit generally borrow the conj. and opt. of 
the form vw. The few instances, wherein these verbs also form 
the given modes after the peculiar manner of the conjugation /«, 
are noticed below in the notes. 

(c) The imperative has the termination Si fol- 
lowing a short characteristic vowel ; e. g. iWaSi 

(d) The infinitive has the termination vat, which 
in the pres. is preceded by a short characteristic 
vowel, in the aor. 2. by a long sound, namely v 
for a, u for e, and ov for o, e. g. n&vcu, aor. 2. Savcu. 

— laravai, aor. 2. arrival, — SiSoimi, aor. 2. dovvai. 

(e) The masc. participle ends in c, preceded by 

the long sounds a, a, ou, and v ; e. g. TiSei'c, larag, 
(Hwovq, StlKVVQ. 

(12) All the other tenses are formed regularly 
from the simple radical form. The following- 
cases appear as examples of deviation. 

(a) An aor. 1. of n'Styu, Upi, and Sf'Sw/xi, is formed 



PARADIGMS OF THE CONJUGATION IN p. 269 

with the termination Ka, thus i%Ka, ma, ccWa. 
These forms, however, are usual only in the indi- 
cative, and their resemblance to the perf. probably 
occasioned the change of the radical sound before 
the perfect termination in the two verbs ridtytc and 
itifu, whose perf. are t&uko. and a/ca, pass. T&eifxai 
and ujmai. 

(b) In the aor. and fut. pass, these verbs retain 
throughout the short characteristic vowel, thus 
IteSijv, zoto&y\v, k§6%v, &c. On the contrary, in the 
perf. and plusqpf. pass, this takes place only in 

urrijyui and §i$<u/lu, e. g. karafxai, §£§ojucu. 



% 79. 



PARADIGMS OF THE CONJUGATION IN ju. 

Active. 



(6EO) 


(2TA&) 


(AOil) 


(AEIKil) 


Pres. I put. 


I place. 


I give. 


I show. 


S. ri^rjfiL 


l(TTT]fXL 


&'c)(o^u 


^ElKVVflt 


rlSriQ 


'larrjQ 


&'<tag 


Seikvvq 


D. — 


l(TTT]<Tl (v) 


hi^uxn (y) 


(JElKWai 


T&ETOV 


torarov 


(tiSoTOV 


(iElKVVTOV 


tlSetov 


'lararov 


Si()OTOV 


Zeikvvtov 


P. TiSefxty 


"l(JTa\lEV 


^i^OfXEV 


dEtKVVfXEV 


Tl§ETE 


'IffTCtTE 


Sl()OT£ 


Selkvvte 


Tl$E Ct<Tl, Tl$E 1 


• iaraai (v) 


Sidodo't, dwov 


- BEHCyvdfflf^ElK- 


m(v) 




crt(v) 


vvai {y) 



270 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Conj. 

S. Tl$iO 

TiSrJQ 
TiSrj 

D. — 

TlSiJTOV 
P. TL$lOU£P 

Opt. 

S. Ti$eir)v 

D. — 

TiSd^TOV) or larrai7]Toy t or didotrjToy, or 

TiSiirov lardiTov dt^olroy 

TiS'eujTrjv, or larairiTrjv, or ^lEou]tt]i^ or 

Ti$drr]v laTalrrjv cidoirrjv 

P. Tt^ei7]jjLEi', or Iffrat^/jLeV) or ^i^olrjfiev, or 

Ti$£i{jL£y Iffjciifiev didoi/iEv 

tlSeitjte, or l(TTair]re t or ^i^otTjre, or 

ri3^7r£ laraiTE Ci^ihte 

TL$Eir](Ta.y t or larairi^avy or didoirjffar, or 



iOTto 


CICOJ 


CElKPViO, 


icrrfjg 


()l(){t)Q 


iiEiicvvric, &C. 


larrj 


didip 




larrJTOit 


()l($U)TOV 




l(TrrJTOi> 


SlfiuJTOV 




i(TT(jJflEV 


dt^fiev 




larriTE 


dldfJJTE 




laruiai (v) 


didwari (v) 




Iffrairjv 


diBotrjv 


hacvvoifjii, &C 


lOTai7)Q 


8(.dulr]G 




IffratT] 


didolri 





ri^ftev 




« orate v 


didouv 




mper. 










S. (Y/Sen) or 




(tWaS-i) or 


(SiSoSi) or 


(^eikw^l) or 


r/$« 




tora 


didov 


ZeIkvv 


ri^erw 




IGTCLTO) 


%1()6tIO 


t)ElKVVTU) 


D. ri-9"£rov 




'larrdroy 


3t()OTOP 


^ElKVVTOV 


rt^e'rioy 




IffTCtTlOV 


didorwy 


^EIKPVTCOV 


P. tlSete 




'iGTClTE 


didore 


^ElKyVTE 


tlSetiogclv, 


or 


iffrdrojaay or 


dicioTWffap or 


^EiKyvrioaay or 


T&EVTiOV, 




tardvTwv 


^^wrwy 


^ELKyvyrioy 


Infin. tiSevcli 




Iffrctpat 


cit^di/at 


()£iKyvyai 


Part tlSeiq, ao-a, 


tora'r;, ©tort, aV didovg, ovaa, 


^EiKyuQfVcrajvy 


eV 






6v 





PARADIGMS OF THE CONJUGATION IN /«. 271 

Gen. tyros Gen. clvtoq Gen. ovrog Gen. vvtoq 



Impf. 



ETiSrjv and \aTf\v 

et'lSovv 

(eTtSrjg) and IcrrrjQ 

ETI&EIQ 

(etiSt}) and larrf 

ETlS'EL 



Edidiov and e^eUvw and 

Eoidovv e<HeIkvvov 

(t^t^we)and e^eikvvq and 

E()i(jovQ edeiKWEQ 

(fc><£w) and ede'iKvv and 

lEi^ov E^EiKyve 



D. — 



P. 



etiSetov 
EriSrirrju 

EtL§£}X£V 

etISete 
kri^Eaav. 



Aor. 2. 

s. 



D. 



£•9-77 



f-9"£rov 

£^ETt]V 
E^EfJLEV 

£%£T£ 

eSegclv 



IGTO.TQV 

\urarr\v 
'iardfiEV 
'Icrrare 
iarUffxtv, 

iarrjv 

£<JT7)Q 
EOTTf 

£<TTT]TOV 

E(Tri]Tr\V 

E(JTY]\IEV 

£(TTT]T£ 

£(JTr\aCLV 



eZIZotov 

EdldoflEV 
£()i()OT£ 

E()(OV 
E^(OQ 
£<)(i) 

ECIOTOV 

£horr]v 

E^OjXEV 
£()OT£ 

E^oaav 



k^ElKVVTOV 
E^ElKyVTTJV 
£^£IKVV}XEV 

E^EiKvvre. 
i^EiKvvaay, 



Conj. 

S. 

Opt. 

s. 

Imper. 

In fin. 
Part. 



S-w, Sfjg, £j7j (trw ., ffrrj q } GTSfi &$$ ^wf, £w, 
&c. &c. &c. 

3-gt^v, &c.as crrairjv, &c. as dolrjv, &c. as 

in the present in the present in the present 

(•vfYi) $££> $i- arrjS'i, crrtjrh), (cWS'i) c»0£, £d- 

rw, &c. &c. rw, &c. 

•9"£7vcu arrival. ^ovvcll 

Seic,, ^Eiaa, (ttclq, crraffa, dove, fiovaci) 

$£V (TTCIV <)6v 

Gen. $(vtoq Gen. (ttcivtoq Gen. cidrroc. 
1 



272 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Fut. 1 . Sr'jaio 


(TTT](TU) 


fiojcru) 


£a'£w 


Aor.l. eSrjKa 


etrrqcra 


kdioica 


E^Ei^a 


Perf. teSeoccl 


E(TT7)Ka 


d£()u>ica 


$i()£i-)(a 


Plsqpf.ire-9-et/ceiv 


tiarriKEiv or 

kffTTIKEiy 


e^e^MKELv. 


E^EdEtyEiy 



Passive. 



Pres. 

Ind.S. 



D. 



P. 



Conj. 

S. 



Opt. 



Imper. 

S. 



Infin. 
Part. 

Impf. 

S. 



Tl$EjJLai 

tiSegcu or 
tISetcll 

Tl§£}A£§OV 

TiSrEffSov 

Tl$E(T%y 

TiSeoSe 
TL&EVTCLI 

rt-9'a/juai 
riSrj 
TiSrjrai, &c. 

Tl§ElflK]V 

ti$e7o 
tiSeIto, &C, 

tISeo-o or 
ri$ov 

rL$£ff$(0, &c. 

rl^Etr S'cu 
ri^ifiEyoQt rj t 
ov, 

£Tl$£fJ.r)V 
(£Tt$£ffo) Or 

et'iSqv 

ETlStTO 



urrafjiai 
taraaai or 

lory. 
'/orrorat 
I era [*£%!> 
IgtclgSov 
"(TTCtcrSov 
IffrdfiE^a 
"iaracr^E 
'iaravTai 



dldojjiai 
(ji<)offai 

^l^6jl£%U 

3l()0<T$OV 

didovrai 



SeUyvfJiai 
BEikvvarat 

(Heiicvvtcu 

C)£lKVVfA£%V 
%£IKVVG§0V 

Se'ikvvoSqv 
^EiKvva^rE 

^ELKVVVTaL 

^ELKyVdJfJLai 
^ELKVVTJ, &C. 



^£tkVVO£/X^l/,&C 



icrrolfiat didwfiaL 

lorry dido} 

la-Tijraiy &c. Sidvraif &c. 

IcrTaifjLrjy difioijjLriv 

laraio Bidolo 

iffraiTO, &c. (HidoiTOf &C. 



laracro or Bldoao or Seikvvcfo 

terra) BLSov 

<<rraV-9'w, &C. ^oo'.S'w, &C. ()£iKyvo-$o) } &C. 

'iffTaaSai didoaSai SEiicyvaSai 

IcrrdfAEyog, rj$ c5ic)ojU£VO£j r/$ fiEiKyvfiEvoQ, rj f 



ov. 



ov. 



oy. 



icrrafirjy 
(taraffo) or 

tOTGJ 



£^L^6fJLl]y E^ELKyVflYll' 

(ec^icWo) or E^EtKyvao 
kdidoro eCEiKyvro 



PARADIGMS OF THE CONJUGATION IN p, 273 



D. ert^efxe^ov 


ttrrdjjLE$ov 


eSiSojjleSov 


E(!)£lKVVlXE$OV 


ETl§£(I§OV 


'iaraaSov 


E^iSocr^oy 


E^ElKVVffSrOV 


£Ti$ia$r)i' 


Iffrd&^riv 


E()l()6(T$rjV 


£$ELICVV(T$riV 


P. ETiSepLeSa 


IdTCLjlE^a 


£dc$6[i£$a 


E(!)£lKVV[l£$a 


eriSeorSe 


tflrracrSte 


£()i()0(T$£ 


E^ELKyvarS'E 


etLSevtq 


"mttclvto 


E^l^OVTO 


E^Ettcvvvro 


Perf. riSeifiai 


EffrafxaL 


dicjofiai 


^iSEiyfiat 


Plsqpf.ire^ft/x^v 


EffrdfjLrjy 


E^E^OfirjV 


■ette^eiy/iJjv 


Aor. I.ir4&rjv * 


EffrdSrfv 


EcHoSrjv 


£^£l^r]V 


Fut. 1. TeSyvofxai 


crraSiiaofxai 


BoSi'iaofjicu 


£a%3>/<ro/me. 




Middle. 




Aor. 2. 








Ind. S. eSifjutiv 


^Effrafxriv f 


ECOJJLrjV 


Wanting. 


(e$e(to) or 


*'icrTaao i &C. 


(etiotro) or 




e'S'ou 




kdov 




e'S'ero 




£$oro, &e. 




D. £$ifi.£$rov 








E'9'£0'-9'01/ 








t-SicS^ 








P. l$£fis$a 








£$e<r&£ 








eSevto 








Conj. ^w/iat 


**7T<i5yLiae 


SiSfiui 




% 


*0T// 


$w 




Srjra.1, &c. 


^ffTfjrat, &c. 


^wrat, &C. 




Opt. ^eijjLrjv 


*ffraifxriv 


Soijiriv 




$£~10 


*0TCUO 


coio 




$£~IT0, &C. 


^oratro, &C. 


Soiro, &C. 




Imper. ($£<ro) or 3o£ 


*(Tra'o'oor(Trw 


(£o<ro) or £ot 


• 


SicrSu), &c. 


*OTa'<T^W, &C 


$6<T$0), &c. 




Infin. S'cflr^at 


*o , ra<r3 , at 


doormat 




Partic. SefievoQ 


^ardfXEVOQ 


SoflEVOQ 




Fut. 1. Srjaofiat 


(TTrjaofiaL 


dojtrofiai 


SeiZo/icii 


Aor. 1 . i fyrjicdfitj v 


Ecrrrjffdfiriv 


i^biKaiiriv 


£^£i^dfir}y t 



* On the form biSyv, see § 15; I). Exception 1. 

f The forms not in use of this aor. 2. mid. of ttrrnph are 
placed here merely as paradigms for other verbs which possess 
such forms. 



274 ETYMOLOGY. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Variation of forms in the conjugation fiu 

Although the conjugation pi predominates in 
the formation of the verbs above adduced, yet 
collateral forms are also found according to the 
conjugation a>, namely in the following cases : 

(1) Verbs in v/m possess even in the 1st pers. 
pres. the form vm besides vpi, and the two are in- 
terchanged almost through all the forms. 

(2) In verbs in v^h having the radical vowel ^ 
and in verbs in w/*i and vfxi the singular of the im- 
perf. act. is generally formed according to the 
conjugation w, the second and third person indeed 
occurring almost exclusively in this form, while 
in the first person the two forms are interchanged 
with each other. On the contrary in the verb 
iarrjfii collateral forms of the imperf. Urtav, f l<jTag 9 
iara 9 belonging to the conjugation w, occur with 
the lonians alone. 

(3) In the pres. the first person of the three 
first of these verbs is almost invariably found 
with the termination jjh alone, but in the other 
persons, particularly the 2d and 3d sing., col- 
lateral forms according to the conjugation t*> 
are in rfSty/u not unusual even to the Attics, in 
8180714 on the contrary S&o'ig for 8/So>c and 81801 for 
Si§oxcr$ belong only to the lonians. Of iarrifxi such 
collateral forms are not found. 

(4) Also the conj. and optat. pass, and mid. of 
verbs in v/m (root ew) and 0711 have a collateral 



OBS. ON THE CONJUGATION IN 



in. 



form according to the conjugation w, wherein the 
characteristic vowels c and o are entirely lost, 
and the accent proves that no contraction must 
be assumed ; e.g. TiOwjiai, nOolfiriv, — ^iBb)jj.ai f ^i8olfiriv. 
In verbs in n^i, whose characteristic vowel is a, 
this form of the conj. and optat. does not occur, 
but an accentuation at least appears in the optat 
which corresponds to those given forms; e. go 

t(jrai(ir]v, raraio, igtulto for igtcliq, IgtciitOo 

(5) Of verbs in vpi we have above adduced 
only the usual form of the conj. and optat., bor- 
rowed from the conjugation w. Nevertheless in- 
dividual traces occur here also of a peculiar for- 
mation according to the conjugation /**, particu- 
larly a pass. opt. in v^v (for vifiriv), 3d pers. vto 

and COnj. in v{xai 9 3d pers. vrai, C. g. SiavK^avvvTai,, 

Plat. Phsedon. p. 94. (ed. Heindorf), ScuWo, 
Horn. II. xxiv. 665., ir'nyvvTo, Plat. Phaedon. p* 
264. Much more rare are the examples of simi- 
lar formations in the active for an opt. in vnv (for 
v'mv), and a conj., in which v absorbs the succeed- 
ing rj of the termination, as in ha<TKE§awv<n (for 
$ia<nct($avvvr}) Plat. Phsedon. p. 95, ejcSv/uev (for 
£K$v~ifuizv) Horn. Ik xvi. 99, (j>wi (as opt. of £<j>vv) 
Theocr. Id. xv. 94. 

(6) No verb, besides those above adduced, tho- 
roughly admits of a formation in fu, but many 
which belong to the conjugation w in the present, 
have single forms according to the conjugation 
f±u This is chiefly the case with the aor. 2. which 
often follows the analogy of verbs in fu $ particu- 
larly in verbs in uw, aw and ow ; e. g. i<f>w and iSpv, 

t 2 



276 ETYMOLOGY. 

aor. 2. to Qvio and Suw — i(5rjv and i^nv, aor. 2. to 
/3cuW and $0avw (old roots j3aw and $0aw) — IjSiW 
and 'iyviov, aor. 2. to /3tow and yi-yvw<y/cw (root -yvow). 

II. Differences of the Dialects. 

(1) In the verb 'larrim the Dorians invariably 
use a instead of *? and therefore form iaTajM, 'larag 
&c. 

(2) Instead of the termination ai of the 3d pers. 
sing, the Dorians say ™, e. g. tI0i?ti, Urari, Si'Swn, 

Sccjcvvri. 

(3) In the 3d pers. plur. pres* act. the Dorians 
adopt the termination vrt preceded by a short 
characteristic vowel, thus tMvti, $i$6vti, Swcvvvn 
for TiOsaai, &c. In Ionic the form laream is used 

for laraaic 

(4) For £Ti0»?v, as imperf. of riBrifu, the lonians 

say kriOea. 

(5) Instead of the termination aav in the 3d 
pers. plur. of the historical tenses the Dorians and 
Epic writers use a simple v, which is appended to 
the short radical vowel ; e.g. ztIOev, Wev, ivTav, i§ov, 

£<j>vv for eriOecraVf Weaav, Eorqffav, zZoaav, ttyvGav. 

(6) The lengthening of the termination of his- 
torical tenses into <skov } which was remarked in 
the conjugation o», takes place also here, chiefly 
in the Ionic dialect ; e. g. 'igt(igkov (for Ut^v), 

&TCMJKOV (for iaTr)v), TiSeaicov (for m'Sijv), Ssgkov (for 
i%v) f <$6gkov (for k'Swv) &C. 

(7) As the conj. is formed in this conjugation 
by contraction, the lonians again resolve it, 



OBS. ON THE CONJUGATION IN p. 277 

adopting however e instead of the radical sound a 
and a) instead of o ; thus Ti&w, lareu), SiSww for nSw, 
t<rrw, &Sw. — This resolved form is proper also to 
the Epic writers, but with these it further expe- 
riences a twofold change, namely, 

(a) The characteristic vowel is lengthened be- 
fore the termination. In this case e before w al- 
ways changes into «, but before ??, it is lengthened 
into y, if a be the primitive sound of the verb, 
and if the primitive sound be e, partly into a, 
partly into y ; e. g. 



Conj. aor. 2. 


Attic. 


Ionic. 


Epic. 




Sgj 


%£lt) 


Saw. 




%\K 


Se#C 


Seiyg Or $t)??c 




OTLJ 


0T£to 


(JTtilD. 




(TT1JQ 


crrsyq 


(TT^C. 




§U 


2ww 


cww. 




8wc 


^ww? 


Swpc. 



(b) Moreover the long modal vowel is short- 
ened ; e. g. Stiofiev for So^tEV, gtwtov for gtyitov, Swo- 
/U£v for §oj/u.£v. 

(8) In the older language the inf. has the ter- 
minations jutv and /msvai, before which the short 
characteristic vowel is always retained, except in 
the inf. aor. 2. of verbs in v/m and of those in *?/xt, 
whose primitive sound is a ; e. #. 



tiSeTjev 


and TtStfizvai 


for ri$£i>ai 


Se/^cv 


and Se/jizvai 


— S'fivat 


iarafiEV 


and lara^vai 


— tcrravat 


OTTJjUEV 


and ffTYi/uievai 


— cravat 


§{$0^(£V 


and §i§of(£vat 


— €>ilWa! 



278 ETYMOLOGY. 

Sofizv and Sofitvai for Sovvai 

$£IKVVJH£V and SeiKVVfJltVai : §£lKVVVO.£ 

^vjuev and Svfuzvai — $vvai 9 

(9) With the lonians the 3d pers. plur. pass, 
changes v before the terminations rai and to into 
a 3 in which case a preceding a is converted into 

e ; e. g. T&saTdi for ri^evrai — iGrmrai and ioTtaro for 
fffravrai and loravro — Sidoarai for S/Sovrai- — k^uKvvaTO 
for eSa/cvuvro. 

(10) The Epic dialect in compliance with the 
exigency of verse sometimes retains the long 
vowel before those terminations, where otherwise 
it ought always to be shortened ; e« g. n%^vat 
and Ti^i]/jBvog for r&ejuievai and Ti$^i£vo£ — Si'Sctjdi and 
$i§ovvai for §l§o%i and §t§ovac. 

Note. Differences of dialect with respect to personal termina- 
tions occur in the conjugation /it, the same as in the conjugation 
to, and therefore their enumeration is not repeated here. Comp» 
§. 75. 

III. Accents. On the position and change of 
the accent the same rules obtain for this conju- 
gation as for the conjugation &>. Only with res- 
pect to the imperat* aor. 2. mid., which is always 
circumflexed in the simple form,, it is to be ob- 
served,, that the accent recedes, when a dissyl- 
labic preposition is appended to the simple root ; 
e. g, %v, sv%V; KaraSov*— On the contrary the ac- 
cent always recedes in the dual and plural, if only 
a monosyllabic preposition is appended ; e* g. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS IN p. 279 

§ 80. 

SOME DEFECTIVE VERBS IN p. 

fl) Upi (tw), I send, throw. 

This verb has almost entirely the same inflexion 
and changes as r&iijii: When the short radical 
vowel e appears pure in the historical tenses and 
receives the augment, it changes into «. The 
use of this simple verb is as rare as its derivative 
compounds are of frequent occurrence, e. g. avlrifu, 

CKpirifxi, £<ptr}ju f jUE&tqjui, £uvtr?/ui, TTpoir}fJLi, v^kqJEUJ &C. 

Active. 

pres. indie. Upi, \nQ, &c. 3 pi. la<n (v) or Uwi (v). 
conj. iw. opt. luxiv. imperat. (&&) &i. inf. fevat. 
partic. Islg. 
imperf. (irfv) low, or f iuv, 2d pers. i«c and Uq, 3 pi. 

i£(rav* 

perf. «/ca. plusqpf. eikeh/. 

fut. rjo-w. aor. 1. rj/ca, ep. £?7K:a. 

aor. 2. ind. (rjv not in use in the sing.) plur. efxev, 
£te, laav or with the augment e?/xev, 

£tr£, Ei<jav. 

conj. w. opt. eu?v, plur. by contraction e^ev, 
eIte, eiev* imperf. (&) e'c infin. avcu. 
partic. £tc. 

Passive, 
pres. tEjucu. imperf. t£ur/v. 
perf. ojucu. plusqpf. up\v. 
aor. 1 . eS^v or with the augment effiijvi. 



280 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Middle, 
flit. riaopai. 
aor. 1. 7\Kajxr\v 

aoiv 2. ifirjv, usually with the augment ufi^v. conj. 
hj^iai, imperat. ov. infin. la%i. partic. c/aevoc. 

Note. In reference to the variation of forms, as also to the 
differences of dialects and change of the accent the very same 
observations apply to this verb, as to Ti$r)fxi (comp. the obs. to 
§ 79). It must further be observed as peculiar to fyp : (1) that 
besides the usual fut. an additional form fW exists, to which is 
formed an aor. 1. eVct. Yet this collateral form is found only 
in the compound dvlrifii and even there confined to the Epic dia- 
lect ; so dvicrei, Horn. Od. xviii. 265.- — tivecrav, II. xxi. 537.— 
dviaavTEQ) II. xiii. 657. — (2) Some forms of this verb are deduced 
from a radical form aw, particularly in the Ionic dialect ; e. g: 
tvvtov, 3 pi. imperf. act. dvUt for dvlrjai, ^ufjum/ieVog, as partic* 
perf. act. 



(2) 


€1/11 [tit) J 


I am. u/iti (fw) I go. 




Pres. 


I am. 


I go. 






Indie. 






Opt. 




S. 


* t 

Ufll 


UfXl 


S. U7]V 


\oijULi or 




(eic) u 


(tie) or u 




lolriv, &C 




IffTl (v) 


uai (v) 


*t 




D. 


_ 


— _ 


D. — 


— 




&GTOV 


ITOV 


ut)tov 






sarov 


ITOV 


UTJTTIV 




P. 


hafikv 


\fXZV 


P. urifxtv 01 






lark 


ITt 


UjXtV 






curt (y) 


mat 0) 


urjre OY 




Conj. 






•t. 

UTB 




S. 


* 


10} 


( ur\aa v) 






f 
W 


tt 


or zhv 





i&c. fy, &c. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS IN f n. 



281 



Imperat. 


i«Si * 


t$t 




forco 


ircu 


D. 


EGTOV 


irov 




EGTUJV 


irwv 


P. 


£0T£ 

£<JT(x)GaV Or EGTWV 


tT£ 

irwcrav or iovtmv 


Infinit. 


tivai 


ikvai 


Particip. 


WV, OVGCi, OV 

Gen. ovtoq 


iu)V, loucra, iov 
Gen. lovrog 


Imperf. 
D. 


r\v f 

(rig) Or rjcrSa 

0?) or riv 


r]uv, ion. r}ia, att. ^c* 

•yac and ^£i(7^a 
•j?« and yuv 


P. 


rjrov Or fiarov 

7\TT}V Or TjGTtlV 

rjfxev 

Tjre Or t/ote 


TJUTOV, 1JTOV 

yuTYjv, yrriv 
yeifiev, yptv 
$ar£, $re 


Fut. 


rjcrav 

»r 
eaofxai 

say or ccrci 

ccrsrat generally 

sarai, &C. 


tjtcrav 




OBSERVATIONS. 




I. To ttfii, 


I am. 



(1) In the indicat. pres. the following forms 
belonging to dialects are to be observed : 

sing, ipfii (dor.), Uai (dor. and ep.), kvri (dor.) 



* Besides this, Epic writers have a middle form lao and effao. 
t Besides ?//*>?*>, which however exists only in the first 
person. 



282 ETYMOLOGY. 

plur. tipsy (ion.), and ^dv (poet.) 3 pers. iaoi (v) 
(ep.), £vti and iWi (dor.) 

(2) The conj. forms in Ionic ew, iyg &c, in Epic 
also the lengthened aw &c. 

(3) The opt. has the Ionic collateral form ioifxi 
&c. ' 

(4) In the imperat. the collateral form ovtcjv of 
the 3d pers. plur. is very rare, the lonians form 

it hoVTWV* 

(5) The infin. has in Epic the collateral forms 
ifizvai and ifipavai, ifiev and Eju/iEv, in Doric vfxzv or 

tyuec, Ufizv or £i/j,eg. 

(6) The Ionic and Epic participle is kCyv, hovaa, 
cov. A rare collateral form of the feminine is the 

Doric iaaea. 

(7) The greatest variation occurs in the sing, 
of the imperf. whose different forms we shall here 
class together, particularly in so far as they per- 
tain to the Epic language. Such as do not be- 
long thereto, are particularly designated. 

Sing. 

1st pers. ea, r\a, EOV, ECMCOV 

2d pers. Si^Sa, w&a, iag (Ion.) 

3d pers. ir\v, j}i|#, WV, take (rjg Dor.) 

Of the plur. only ioav as collateral form to wav 
requires observation. 

(8) The Epic fut. doubles the a according to 
the exigency of verse. 

(9) On the liability of this verb to inclination 
we have treated above (§. 12. 2.), where at the 



DEFECTIVE VERBS IN ]iu 283 

same time also ($. 12. 3. c.) the exceptions have 
been specified. 

(10) Compounds with prepositions, where the 
rule admits, receive the accent of the verb upon 
the preposition ; in the inf. and partic. however 
it remains upon the radical word ; e. g. oweivai, 
avvbjv. — Other cases, wherein the accent is re- 
tained by the verb, occur in the imperf. as e. g. 
awrjv (originally awkriv), and in the fut. e. g. ^earai 

(properly t&GZTai.) 

II. To d/ii, I go. 

(1) Besides the adduced forms this verb pos- 
sesses a pres. and imperf. mid. : ic/mi, i^ur?v, which 
are made use of in the intensive signification to 
haste. The fut. uaofnai and aor. utu^aiv belong to 
the Epic dialect. 

(2) ufxi, although a pres. in respect to form, is 
however commonly used itself in the signification 
of the fut. 

(3) An Epic collateral form of the 2d pers. sing, 
pres. is ua%a. — Also urj as 3d pers. sing. opt. be- 
longs to the Epic dialect. — Epic collateral forms 
of the infin. are t^vai and i'juev. 

(4) This verb also exhibits the most remark- 
able copiousness in the imperf., whose various 
forms, as used by the Epic writers, are here 
classed together : 

Sing. 1st pers. via, riiov. 

2d pers. nisg, and Uq 

3d pers.« e (v),K0/&W' 



284 ETYMOLOGY. 

Dual. 3d pers. irr\v 

Plur. 1st pers. yojuiev 

3d pers e rjiov, riiaav, tcrav. 



§81. 
VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 

(1) Verbal adjectives which are derived from 
and belong to verbs, deserve a place here. They 
form two classes, one terminating in roe, ttj, tov, 
and the other in rkog, rka, rkov. 

(2) Both these terminations are appended im- 
mediately to the root of the verb, yet in certain 
cases, when the root ends with a consonant, such 
alterations must be adopted, as are required by 
the r. At the same time also a change of the 
vowel often occurs and not unfrequently a a is 
inserted. 

(3) In all such changes the verbal adjective 
agrees with the aor. 1 . pass., and hence it admits 
of the most correct formation from this tense, 
namely, by cutting off the augment and the ter- 
mination %v, by changing the aspirate at the end 
of the root into the tenuis and then by appending 
the terminations toq and reog. Herein may be 
compared the 3d pers. sing. perf. pass., which in 
most cases affords a correct guide to the formation 
of these adjectives ; e. g. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE CONJUGATION. 285 



Xiyo) (XsXcfcrai) sXey^lrjv — ■ 

0iXfa> (w£(j>i\riTai) e^iXtjStjv 

wavu) (jrETravTai) kirava^v — 



Xpacj (Kexpvrai) 
alpicj (yprirai) 

(7T£7rvvrat) 






ttvz(i) 



Xektoq 

XeKTZOQ 

GTpETTTOC 

GTpETTTEOQ 

ffnXt]TEOQ 

7TaVCTTOQ 

TTClVGTtOQ 

yjp^aroq 

yjpHlGTZOQ 

alpETog 
aipEriog 

7TVEVGTOQ. 



(4) In respect to signification the two forms 
are accurately distinguished ; adjectives in toq 
express either a finished action, e. g. Xektoq, said, 
or more frequently a mere possibility, e. g. alperog, 
that can be taken, capable of being taken. On 
the contrary verbals in rkoq always imply the idea 
of necessity ; e. g. aipzrkov, that must be taken, ca- 
piendum. 



Irregular and defective conjugation. 

§82. 
CAUSE OF ANOMALY. 

(1) Anomaly arises in conjugation, when the 
root of a verb is changed by the addition of one 
or more letters or by the transposition of the let- 
ters which compose it. 



286 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2) The root receives additions very frequently 
and in a variety of ways ; hence arise a great 
number of irregular verbs, which cannot be 
formed correctly, unless besides the present the 
pure and unchanged radical form be known. 

(3) To facilitate the ascertainment of the radi- 
cal form, we here give a synopsis of the changes 
by which the usual present is formed from the 
simple root. In it we distinguish whether the 
simple root terminates in a vowel or in a conso- 
nant. 

A. Changes of verbal roots terminating in a 
vowel. 

(1) The present is formed by annexing v to 
the radical form ; e. g. from the roots $%, m, ™, 

<)v, the pres. (pSavk), nivit), tlvoj, $vvw, fut. <j)%a(r(*}, 

iriovfiai, TLdoj, Svgix). — If a or c be the characteristic 
of the simple root, it usually changes into at or a 
on the annexation of v ; e. g. from the roots j3a, ^a, 

ktb, re, the pres. (Baivw, (palvb), KTtivk), relvw. 

Note 1. More rarely i is appended to a of the root withou*- 
the accession of y, as in icXaiu), kuioj from the roots, icXa, Ka. 

(2) The present is formed from the simple ra- 
dical form by annexing the termination vwfu, e.g. 
pres. Kepavwfxi, ofihvviii, rlvvvfii, from the roots /ao«, 

tfj3e, ri. 

Note 2. Herein the characteristic vowel o changes into w ; e. g, 
^tovrvjjLL from the 'Co. — Also £ is sometimes changed into i, e. g. 
ktivvv/jll from the root ktg. 

(3) The present is formed from the simple root 
by annexing &k. In this case the short vowels a 

3 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE CONJUGATION. 287 

and o are usually changed into r? and w, frequently 
also a reduplication is prefixed to the root, as in 
verbs in jm, e. g. from the roots %va, |3oo, rpo, yvo, 

the preS. SvTJOTCW, (3pW(JKU), TLTpUGKU), yiyVWGKit), 

Note 3. In polysyllabic roots a remains unchanged ; e. g. 
yr)pa<rKU), iXd&KOfiai from the roots ynpa, l\a. But e is usually 
changed into t ; e. g. crrepicrico) from the root crepe, on the con- 
trary dpiaKu) from ape. 

B. Changes of verbal roots terminating in a 
consonant. 

(1) In monosyllabic roots the short vowel is 
usually lengthened, a being changed into r?, e and 
i into a, v into ev ; e. g. from the roots tuk, <nrep, 
Xi7r, <j>vy, the pres. tt)ki*>, oirupu), AaVfa>, <pevyoj, aor. 2., 

tra/ojv, tGirapyiv, £At7rov, tfvyov, 

(2) X at the end of the root is doubled ; e. g. 

from the roots j3aX, a-y-yfX, the pres. j3aXXw, ayycXXw, 
aor. f]3aXov, rjyyaXa. 

(3) e or a is appended to the root, in order that 
the tenses may be formed with the greater facility 
and harmony ; e. g. from the roots pa^, maS, av\, 

pres. fiayo\iai } juav^avu) f ah^avuyj fut. fxaykooixai } fxaSr}- 
oofxai, av^rjau). 

Note 4. Of this kind of change in the root the following cases 
are to be distinguished: (1) most frequently a radical form 
lengthened by the annexation of £ or a is simply to be presup- 
posed for the formation of the fut. and of the derivative tenses 
of those verbs, which without this appendage would necessarily 
have forms either inharmonious or easy to be confounded with 
others ; e. g. from fiaypp-ai the regular fut. would be fid^ofiat, 
and consequently would resemble the fut. of fidvario (I knead) ; 
hence the lengthened form fia^crojiat or ptayfitrctfiai. From ai/fa 
the fut. would be aii^w, or, by rejecting <r, avE,(o (like the pres.) ;, 
hence abtyiaoj. The root a/za'prw would have fut. d/idprtrio, 
djj.dp&(Oy indistinct and inharmonious, wherefore djiapTijcTio. In 



288 ETYMOLOGY. 

the pres. this appendage does not appear, but either the pure 
root (as in yua^ojuai), or a different kind of prolongation (as in 
av^dvoj and afxaprdvoj). (2) The e is annexed in the pres. and 
retained in the imperf., but vanishes in the derivative forms ; 
e. g. &$£(*), fut. uxru), pL7TTE w, fut. pl\p<i). This peculiarity appears 
most frequently with the Tonians and Epic writers, who also de- 
duce the remaining tenses from such lengthened forms of the 
present ; e. g. wS'tw, fut. w£//<rw — me^eo) for -kle^io — jiaWiuy for 
/Ba'XXw, and the like. (3) In this manner the poets often from 
monosyllabic roots form new verbs, in which e of the root 
changes into o or w ; e. g, tyopiu) (from 0£pw), rw/za'w (from 

VEfAU)) &c. 

(4) v is annexed to the root; e. g. from the 

roots rqu, §tiK pres. Tf/ivw, daKVto, aor. 2. trquov, 

(5) The syllable av is annexed to the root ; e. g. 

from the roots apapT, au£, ala%, pres. c^iapravw, 
av%av(t), alaSlavofiai, aor. 2. rj^aorov, t\v%>ov, iJaSo^rjv. — 

Many monosyllabic roots, having a short vowel 
and ending with a mute, on annexing the syllable 
av insert an additional v before the mute of the 
simple root. This changes before a P sound into 
in, and before a K sound in y ; e. g. from the roots 

Xi7r, Xaj3, Tvy^ fxa$, a§, pres. \ifj,7rav(t), Xc^uj3ava>, rvy- 
yavb), fjiavSavw, av^avio, aor. 2. £Xt7rov, €Xaj3ov, etu^ov, 
epaSov, eaSov, 

(6) The termination wfii is annexed to the 
root ; e. g*. from the roots ay, &i/c, o/x, pres. ayvvfit, 

ScCJCVVjLU, OflVVjULU 

(7) As a poetic prolongation of the simple 
root must be observed the annexation of £ to- 
gether with such a connective vowel, as is re- 
quired by the sound of the root, generally with a ; 

e. g. ukc&u), §io)Ka,§<A), aycotSw, <pftivv%w for uku), Biwkw, 
ayapw, Qlbivw. 

6 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 289 

(8) Anomaly is also frequently occasioned by 
the simple transposition of the letters of one and 
the same root, whereon no further rules admit of 
being laid down ; e. g. j3«A, aor. 2. 'l(3a\ov 9 perf. 
fiefiXiiica (from j3Aa), 7T£pS, perf. irk-iro^a, aor. 2. 

i-rrpaSov (from 7rp£$), Sav, aor. 2, £%vov, perf. t&vy)kcl 

(from Sva). 



§83. 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

(1) From anomalous verbs must be distinguished 
the defectives, of which a considerable number 
occur in the Greek language. These exhibit no 
deviation in the formation of tenses, like the ano- 
malous verbs, but are characterised by the fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 

(2) From the great copiousness of the Greek 
language, from the diversity of its dialects, of 
which several attained a high cultivation and were 
established in written productions, and from the 
particular attention continually bestowed by the 
Greeks in general upon the harmony and improve- 
ment of their language, it could not fail to happen 
that a multitude of old forms gradually declined 
in use and were at length entirely supplanted 
by others of more modern date. Thus the sim- 
plest form, the present of many verbs, has become 
obsolete, and is no longer to be met with in the 
writings of the Greeks ; while individual forms, 



290 ETYMOLOGY. 

chiefly for the narrative tense, the aorist, are still 
in use. 

(3) Every such relic of an old verb is now as- 
sociated with the more modern present form, to 
which it belongs in signification, although the 
two frequently possess no resemblance to each 
other. Thus we say, e. g. to the present alpiio 
belongs the aorist u\ov, although it is impossible 
for the latter form to be deduced in any way 
from the former, but the two are allied together 
solely by the common signification, to take away. 
The same is the case with respect to eXeixro/mai and 
*JX%i> ? both associated with the present ipyopai, 
and to others enumerated in the following cata- 
logue. 



§ 84, 



CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE 
VERBS. 

Observations on the following Catalogue. 

(1) The forms distinguished by capitals are all 
obsolete roots, which are requisite for the deduc- 
tion of irregular forms still in use, but must no 
longer be used themselves. 

(2) To avoid unnecessary prolixity the extant 
orms of an irregular verb are often not completely 

enumerated. These however are merely forms 
which continue in the analogy, and consequently 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 291 

can be formed easily and regularly, and the omis- 
sion is always indicated by &c. Thus e. g. in 
alviio after assigning the fut. alvEGO), the aor. rjveo-a 
can be formed at once, and therefore has not been 
received into the catalogue. 

(3) Where the signification is not specifically 
given, the natural one, such as is clear from the 
signification of the present, must be understood 
to remain. 

(4) Forms which are usual only with the poets 
and in the older language, are designated by an* 
at the beginning. 

A. 

* 'Aaw, I hurt, of which aor. aasa or aaa in the act. 
3d sing. pres. aarai, aor. aa<j%v, in the pass, and 
aor. acKjafiriv in the mid., are alone used. [Each 
a is used long or short, according to the exi- 
gency of the verse.] 

'Aya'pw, / assemble, fut. and aor. regular ; pf. with 
the Attic reduplication ayrjye^/ca, 3plur. plusqpf. 
pass. * ayriyEpaTo, 3 plur. aor. 2. mid. ^7}yi^ovro i 
besides its partic. * ayoo^voq (both with a pas- 
sive signification). 

"Ayafiai, I admire, pres. and imperf. as 'tarafiai, fut. 

ayaaofxai, aor. riyaa^v and rjyaaajuiriv. 

"Aywpi, I break, from 'ATQ, fut. «£w, aor. iat,a, 
(with the syllab. augm.), Ep. also fify, pf. 2. 
iaya (with an intransit. signification, / am 
broken), aor. 2, pass, fayijv. 

u 2 



292 ETYMOLOGY. 

>; Ayo>, / lead, fut. a£w, &C. aor. 2. rj-ya-yov, inf. a-ya- 

yav, aor. 2. mid. ^yayo/^v (with the Att. redupl.), 

pf. riya, Dor. ayfioya. 

*'Adpu), I raise up, used only in the partic. aelp&v, 

pass, aupopzvog, part. aor. 1. act. iidpaq, mid. aei- 

papzvog, aor. 1. pass. 3 pers. sing, a^Sr*, 3 plur. 

aepSev, paftic. atpSslg. — Pllisqpf. pass. 3 pers. awp- 

70. All its remaining forms are deduced from 

aipto). 

*'AEQ, inf. arivai or ayfxivai, to blow, retains the 
long characteristic vowel also in the dual, and 
plur., as well as in the pass., pres. pass, arjpi, — - 

Aor. 1. aeaa, inf. aiaai, to sleep. 

AIvlw, i" praise, fut. cuvcffw, &c. — perf. pass, ^v^iai, 
but aor. 1. P. ^V (see § 77. Obs. 2. b.). 

Alpio), I take, fut. alprjGU).— Perf. ypr}Ka. Ionic apai- 

pr}Ka, perf. pass, yprifxau aor. 1 . pass, yp&nv. The 
aor. 2. is borrowed from the obsolete root 
8 EAQ, and makes uXov, inf. tXeiv, for the act. 
tiAojurjv. inf. tXiaSai for the mid. 
Aipu), I raise, fut. apio, &c. 

Atcr^avojuat, I feel, fut. aia%GOfxai, &C — aor. 2. ^(t3o- 
/i»?v, perf. ya^t}jnau 

^'AicayjxzvoQ, pointed, partic. perf. pass, from an 
unusual root, which may be 'AKAZQ or 'AKQ, 
according as a reduplication is assumed or not 

in aKayjxkvoq. 

# 'AKAXQ, / afflict, aor. 2. ^Kayov, aor. 1. maynaa 

Or a/camera.- — Mid. aor. 2. rjKayopriv Or aKayo^v, 
Perf. aKayj\p.m and a.Kr}y^jxai, 3 plur. aKr)yk§ciT(U 
for d/crj^Evrac. Plusqpf. 3 plur. aicayjEiaTo for ci/ca- 

6 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 293 

* 'AXeetVw, i" avoid, to which the Epic forms of the 

aor. 1. mid. are riXevaro or aXevaro, partic. aXcva- 
ji£voc, inf. a\ea<r%ai and dXzvaaSai deduced from a 
root 'AAE without <r. 
'AXcSw, I avert, fut. a'Xs^ww, and from 'AAEKQ, aor. 
mid. aXe&KrSai. From the syncopised form 
AAKQ, and by reduplication, are formed the 

Epic aor. 2. a'XaX/cav, &c. 

'AX^a/vw, I heal, fut. aX0T?<7w. aor. mid. # aX%fir\v, 

with an intransit. signification. 
'AX/cr/co/iai *, I am caught, from 'AAOQ fut. aXw<ro= 

/iae, aor. 2, taXwv and rlXwv (the former more 

Attic), inf. akwvai, COnj. «Xw, wc, &C. opt. aXoirjv, 

part. aXovg. perf. UXwKa and rJXw/ca. The active 
forms also have only a passive signification. 

* 'AXircuvw, Jsm, fut. aXirrjGi*), aor. 2. riXirov, aor. 2. 

mid. riXirofiriv. Also aXiTrj/j,evog, as part. pres. mid. 

from an accessory form aXirrffiai. 
''AXXo/xai, I spring, fut. aXoiijUcu, aor. 1. r\Xafxr\v, aor. 

2. iiXofiriv. Ep. in the 2 and 3 pers. syncopised 

and without aspiration * aXao, aXro. 
*'AXuffKw, I shun, fut. aXv^ix), aor. riXu£a. 

'Ajua^ravw, I err, fail, fut. a/napTriooiJiai, pf. i]papTr)Ka, 
aor. rijmapTOV. 

'AtifiXiaicijj, Imiscarry, fut. a/LifiXuato, &c. from 'AM- 

BAOQ. 
'A/u7T£^o> and afnnGyyovfiai, see under "E^w. 

* ' AinrXaKiGKb), I err, miss, fut. afnrXaK^ab), aor. i7/i7rXa» 

kov. inf. ajU7rXa/cav. 

'A^ilwu/xe, J draw, 'AM<I>IEQ, fut. u^dau), Att. 
afupLu, aor. ??/x<j>i£<ra, pf. rifJityUcrfiai, afi^uifiau 



294 ETYMOLOGY. 

'AvaXeWt^ I consume, spend, forms from avakow 

fut. avaXwffd), aOI. avdXwaa, pf. avdXwica, all lin- 

augmented with the Attics ; but in Ionic also 
with the augment, fivdXwica, or avy\Xhwa. 
'Av§dv<*) } I please, imperf. fivSavov and kdv^avov, Ep«> 
also erivSavov, aor, 2, ?aSov, Ep. also a<$ov, besides 
the 3 pers, zid^e, inf. a§uv, pf. za$a and ll&i, 

Hit. a8i}<Tb). 

*'i£#5*ft8tev, 3 pers. sing. perf. 2. to denote a finished 
action, gushes forth, ?ises tip, to be derived 
from 'ANBQ, allied to av&w, I floiver (accord- 
ing to Buttman, Lexilog. p. 266 foil.). 

AvoiytJ OF avoiyvvfai, see Oiyco. 

*''Ai;wya, an old perfect form of uncertain deriva- 
tion^ and with a present signification, 1 com- 
mand, commission, also syncopised 1 pers, plur. 
avMjfiev, imperat. Sviayjbi, besides -qvwym as a 
plusqpf. — Hence a new pres. av^yw, impf. 

rjVdjyov and rjVbiytov* fut. ai>w$w, aor. iqvw^a. 

** kirnvpiDv , as 1 pers. sing, and 3 pers. pint, impf. 
with also an aor* signification, I took away, 
2 perSe awnvpaq, 3 pers. axqvga, from an assumed 
radical form cnravpau, of which, however, no- 
thing occurs besides the enumerated forms. 
To it awovpae belongs as a partic, on account 
of similar signification, although their connec- 
tion does not admit of being clearly pointed out. 

# 9 Airaj>i<JKto, I deceive aor» 2. wa$oi>, inf. cnrafeiv, 

lUt, a7TU<f>f}G(jJ<, 

The active of this verb never occurs^ but Is invariably sub- 
stituted by cupeV 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 295 
Arrzy^avoixai, I am hated, fut. aTT&y^riGOiiai, perf. 

ApapicTKw, I Jit, aor. 2. ripapov, fut. ap<j(t) 9 aor. 1. Tjoo-a, 
i^po-a^rjv. The perf. 2. apapa, or apripa, has an 
intransitive signification, as also the pf. pass. 

apr\pefxai. 

J Aphicu), I make favourable or pleasing ; also in- 
transit. / please, fut. ape™, &c. perf. pass, t?o£<x- 

fxai, aor. pass. 7)pka%v. 

S APQ, radical form to hpapiGKb) and apkaKu, also to 

aiptt), 

kv^avw, I increase, aor. 2. 7}i>£ov, fut. au^aw, aor. 1. 
?ji>$r]a-a, pf. rju^fca, perf. pass. i}v^i]juac, aor. nv'in- 
%v — av'ihaofxai as fut. pass. I shall grow. 

,f kytiofiaiy I am Vexed, fut. ciyStao/uai, aor. tJ^SeV&jv. 

# 'AXQ, radical form to axyvpai and 'AKAXQ, 
which see. 



B. 



Balvo), I go, primitive form BAQ, by reduplicat. 
fiifiaix), fttfitiju, or, by the insertion of <jk, j3a<TKw, 
fut. finaofjLai, pf. /3lj3??/ca, aor. 2. tfiriv, conj. j3w, 
opt. (Sairiv, imperat. j3r$i *, inf. ffivai, part. j3ac, 
Baaa, fiav— some compounds take a transitive 
signification, and therefore form also the passive 
forms pf. fisflajuiai, aor, IjSa^v. In the Ionic dia- 
lect the simple verb is also used in the transitive 
sense, to lead, bring, and the fut. j3^w, aor. k'jSrj- 
va, stand exclusively in this signification. The 
following accessory forms from the dialects 

* In composition also shortened, e. g» Kardfia. 



296 ETYMOLOGY. 

must also be observed : (1) of the pres. 3 pers. 
/3t/3a, partic. /3*j3wv, j3tj3wcra, formed from j3i/3aw, 
and j3tj3«c, from jS/jS^u. — (2) of the aor. 2. 3 dual. 
/3arr/v, besides finrnv, 3 plur. efiav, besides £/3»?- 
<rav, conj. fito, lengthened into j3ew and fiuto, 
plur. /3etO|U£v (see § 75. 1. 3. h). — (3) of the perf. 
the syncopised accessory forms, 1 plur. (5i(5afxev 9 
3 plur. j3tj3aa(yi, 3 plur. plusqpf. fikfiaaav, part, 
pf. j3£|3awc> j3fj3aina, contr. jSejSwc, j3£|3w<ra (see 
$ 75. I. 1. b). — All these forms belong to the 
poets, and particularly to the Epic poets, with 
whom an aor. mid. jSiVsro and an imperat. (3t}<teo 
also occur (comp. § 75, I. 1. d). 

BaAXw, I throw, fut. /3a\w, Ion. and with later 
writers jSaXXrjcrw, aor. 2. cjSaAov, by transposition 
of the radical letters pf. j3ej3Xij/ca, pf. pass, fie- 
/3X^tae, aor. 1. e(3\ii%v, aor. 2. mid. ejSaXopjv. — - 
also in Epic are formed from an assumed form 
BAHMI, fi\y]Tr\v as a 3 dual, imperf. or aor. 2. 
act. and ifiXrjTo as a 3 sing. aor. 2. mid. with a 
pass, signification, besides the inf. J3Xi}<rdai, part. 
(BXrinzvog, opt. jSXa^ijv, |3Xao. — Epic writers also 
form /3£j3oX^aro as a 3 plur. plusqpf. pass., and 
fiefioXtipzvog as a partic. pf. pass., from an ac- 
cessory form BOAEQ. 

* BAPEQ, usual pres. /3ap/vw, / to^/, from the old 
radical form comes the Epic partic. perf. /3e/3a- 
^wc (comp. § 75. I. 1. b). 

Ba<7ra£a>, I heai\ fut. j3a(rra(7w, &c. adopts in the 
passive the other mode of formation according 
to the characteristic y; e.g. aor. 1. k^aara^v 
(see § 69. Note 5.) 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 297 

BaGKu>> BAQ, BIBHMI, see BaiW 

Bifipwaicw, I eat, from BPOQ, fut. j3pwaw and j3pw- 

aofiai, &C. aor. 2. Ej3f>tov. 

Btow, 1 live, fut. j3ia><To^ai, aor. 1. kfiuoaa, besides 
aor. 2. f/3io)v, of which the remaining modes are 
chiefly used, conj. ]3iw, /3twc, &c, opt. fiiyw, 
imperat. /3tw9i, inf. /3twvai, part. j3ioi/c. 

BXaorcivw, J Sprout, fut. fiXaGTrjau), &C. aor. 2. 
£j3Xaa"roi>. 

BAHMI and BOAEQ, see BaXXw. 

Bo<7/cw, I feed, fut. (3off#cri(rw, &c. 

BouXo^uat, / w?i//, impf. £j3ouXojurjv and ri(5ov\6[iriv 9 

fut. ^ovXriaofxai, pf. foefiovXrjpai, aor. I/3ovX»j3ijv and 

t5j3ouX?%v (see § 66. d). 
BPOQ, see Bif$p<S&c<a. 



Tafxiu, I marry, fut. yajuL&aa), Att. yct/uw, also yapScrw, 
perf. ysya^/ca, aor. iyripa, inf. yrtytai, fut. mid. 

yafiovfxai, aor. mid. iyrifiafiriv from the root 
TAMQ. 
* n-ywva, a form for the perfect similar to avwya, 
used also in the signification of the imperfect 
and aorist, I cried aloud ; part, yeywviog, inf. ye- 

ywvav and ysywv^utv. Also a new imperf. kytyii- 
vzvv COntr. from lyfywvtov. 

TENQ, the obsolete root of yuvofiai (purely poet.) 
and yivofiai or yiyvojiai; which transitively signi- 
fies, / beget ; intransitively, I am born, arise, 
become. The transitive signification, however, 
belongs only to the aor. iyuvi^v, I begat. All 



298 ETYMOLOGY. 

the remaining forms in use, fut. ysvwojucu, aor. 
iytvofiriv? pf. ycyova and jEyivrijuaij have the in- 
transitive signification alone. In Epic and 

with the poets, perf, yeyaa, 3 plur. yeydaai, 
1 plur. yzyafizv, illf. ysy dfiEv, part. yzyauQ, yeyavla, 

contr. 7€yo5c, ysyweq, which forms are all to be 
deduced from the simple root FE, and by- 
change of sound TA. 

X\$£w, I rejoice, fut. yn%<Tb), &c. perf. 2. ytyqSa in 
the signification of the present. 

TiyvwaKh) (Att. besides ywwoKts)), I know, root 

FMOQ, fut. yvtoGOjLiai, perf. iyvioica, pf. pass.cyvoxr- 

fiai, aor. pass. kyvwa%v. The aor. 2. formed ac- 
cording to the conjug. p.i, iyvisyv, plur. iyvwpev, 
8cc, inf. yvuivai, imperat. yvu\ yvurw, &c, opt. 
yvmr\v, part. -yi>oi/c. 



I^anvai, see AAQ, 

AaKvt*), I bite, from AHKQ, fut. ^opai, perf. SeSij- 

ya, &C. aor. s'Sajcov. 

Aapw, J toze, simple root AAMQ, whence aor. 2. 
c&i/Liov, conj. Sajtiw, lengthened Safiew, Sapdto, by 
transposition of the letters of the root, pf. SeSpuzica; 
pass. US/urinal, aor. 1. pass. EcW$r?v. 

Actpdavoi, J «s/eep, flit. £ap$?j o-o/iai, pf. Sf^ap^/ca, aor. 

jSapSov, by transposition ^pAi/, and with a 
passive form but an active signification, 

*AAQ, primitive to hdaoKu, I teach, from which 
with an active signification only aor. 2. iZaov 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 299 

or SsSaov. The most usual forms are the aor. 
2. pass, k^ariv, (I was taught) learnt, inf. Sarivai, 
conj. Saa'w (by an Ep. prolongation for Saw), 
fut. Saiiaofiai. The passive signification belongs 

also to the perf. &c)a??/ca, Sedaa, &Saijjuai. — Of the 

mid. the Epic inf. hBrntrSajL, (to become acquainted 
with,) inquire into, investigate, is alone extant. 

A«, see Aeoj. 

AelSu), see Alio. 

AeiKvvfii, I show, fut. &i'£w, &c. The lonians form 
the derivative forms without i, thus §e$w, i&Za, 
&e. The Epic form of the perf. pass. Sei&ypAi* 
is irregular. 

A^w, jT £&£&/, aor. ifoipa, perf. Sl^aca by transpo- 
sition of the radical letters, to be distinguished 
from the like forms of the verb Sapaw. 

AtpKuj, usually Uptcopm, I see, perf. USopw with a 
present signification, aor. i&paKov (for iSapKov), 
also ^paKriv and sSepx^v all with an active sig- 
nification. 

Asyopai, I receive, fut. S&ppat, &c. The Epic forms 
of the aor. 2. without a connective vowel I8i-ypjv, 
3d. pers. Stvcro and e&iktq, imperat. &'£o, inf. ^x~ 
Sat, part. Sfy^itvoc are to be observed. 

Ato), I bind, fut. c^crw, aor. £cW, pf. Sc&icaj perf. 
pass. $&tpai, aor. e&Sijv (see § 77. Obs. 2. b.), 
the fut. 3. SeSriffOfiai has the signification of the 
simple fut. pass. 

Aku), I want, am deficient, pass. Uo/uai, I have need 
of, beg, fut. §£wo>, &c. In general the act. occurs 
only as an impersonal, pres. &i, conj. &'#, opt. 



300 ETYMOLOGY. 

<$eoi, Inf. Bdv, part. 2>£ov,impf. iBu, aor. £$eV«, fut. 

Btfjcrei. 

AHKQ, see Aukvu). 

AiBaaKw, / ifetfcA, fut. SiSa£a>, aOI\ eBlBa^a, pf. Se8i- 
^a^a, &C. 

Ai^atTKw, / rw^ tfwtf?/, usually occurring only in 
compounds, borrows from the root APAQ fut. 

Bpacrojxai, perf. BeBpaica, aor. tBpav, ag, a, &C. COnj. 

Bpu, ac, a, &c, opt. Spairjv, imperat. BpaSi, inf. 
Spavai, part. Spae, (all formed according to the 
Conjugation fxi). 

Allrijuiai, I seek, retains the long characteristic 
vowel in the passive form contrary to the ana- 
logy of the conjugation pi. 

Aim, I fear, fly, Blofxai, I scare, terrify, both in use 
only with Epic writers. Hence are deduced the 
pf. B&Bia, I fear, in Epic also BdBia, pi. without 
a connecting vowel BelBifiev, BuBite, BuBia&i, im- 
perat. BuBiSi, inf. BeBiivai, Ep. BsiBipsv, part. BeBiwq, 
gen. otoq and wroc, plusqmperf. 3 plur. kBdBioav. 
—The common language has the pres. BuBw, 

fut. Betarofiai, aor. iBsura. Ep. iBBeiaa, pf. SeSot/ca with 

a present signification. 
AokIoj, I appear, seem, from AOKQ, fut. Bo'fa, &c. 

pf. with a passive form BeBoypai, have appeared. 

The regular formation Bok^™, Sec. is more rare. 
APAQ, see AiBpaaicuj. 
Avi»a/*ai, 2 #/?2 # We, 2d. pers. Bvvacai (not Suvp), im- 

perf. nBwafiviv (see § 66. 2. d.) conjugated like 

iffTdfiai. fut. Bvvriaop.ai; aor. Sw^S^v and ISwaaStyi;, 

pf. BiBvvtifj.au 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 301 

^vw, I cover, fut. <$v<tu), aor. idvaa, aor. pass. ISt&rjv. 
The pf. S&vica and the aor. 2. i$vv, inf. Suvai, Ep. 
Svfizvai, part, Sue have, like the mid., whose forms 
are regular, the signification : to immerse one's 
self, to inwrap one's self. 



E. 



'Eyeipw, I wake, regular in most of its forms, pf. 
tyr/ycpAca (with the Att. redupl.) — The mid. 
syeipofxat, I awake, syncopises the aor. 2. 

r}-yp6fii\v (for rjyepofJL-nv^, inf. typeaSai. — To this 

mid. the perf. 2. kyprjyopa (for eyriyopa) belongs 
in signification, besides the Ep. accessory forms 
£ypff)yop% and typvyopSaai (as 2d. and 3d. pers. 
plur.) and the inf. eypriy6p%i. 
''ESw, / eat, used in this form only with the Ep. 
writers and Ionians, besides the pf. c&jSa (with 
the Att. redupl.) and the fut. '^ojuai (for tSovfim, 
see § 73. 2. a.).- — Prose writers make use of 
arSiw, as a pres., and deduce to it forms from t%>, 
EAEQ : pf. zSriSoKa, [fi&fca, by change of vowel 
rJSoAra, with the Att. redupl. c&J&Mea], pf. pass. 

eStjcWjucu, Ep. also e^rj^ojuLai, aor. pass. rj^USriv. 
As aor. 2. act. fyayov, inf. <j>ayeiv. 
Elojmai, I Sit, fut. &ovpai. 

'E&Xai and ScXw, / am willing, fut. tQskriM, %z\r}<ja>, 

Sec. 
*ESw, I am wont, only with Ep. writers, together 

with the pf. 2. awSa, Ionic iw%, in the same 

signification. 
EIAQ, an obsolete form with the signification, / 



302 ETYMOLOGY, 

see, perceive, in Epic yet used as a passive, 
EiSopai, I am seen, appear, seem, besides the 
aor. Hcrafxriv or hiGafxy]v. — The primitive form 
is IAQ, aor. 2. elBov, Ep. also without augm. 
i'Sov, conj. 'ISto, opt. i^oifii, imper. ffig, inf. ISuv, 
part. ISwv, aor. 2. mid. u^o^v, tSo/xijp in the 
same signification. — The pf. olSa (I have per- 
ceived or seen into) I know, which belongs 
thereto, is anomalous in formation and conjuga- 
tion. Its forms therefore are here completely 
enumerated. 

Sing. 

ot&a 

(ol^ag only Ion.), ol^a (for olSaaSa, see § 75. III. 

, 2 ° 

Dual 

Utov (borrowed from a collateral form tSa, con- 
sequently instead of ffiarov, by syncope @*©v) 

\<JTOV 

Plural 

to/iev (for ISafiev, by syncope iSpsv, which form is 
yet much used by the lonians). 

>r 

tore 

iaaai (for tcWi, where the change of 8 into a can 
only be explained as proceeding from an en- 
deavour to assimilate this form to the remain- 
ing ones of the dual and plural, which all 
have <r instead of §). The forms ohW^ ot- 
Sare, &c. are found only with the lonians and 
later writers. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 303 

Conj. dSoj, opt. eiShV, imperat. ia%i, wtu (for 
i$ii), inf. tldzvai, Ep. Ion. 18/ilvai, part. u§wg, 

via, og. 

Plusqmpf. fteiv, Ep. pea, Att. also $S*j (formed 
from the root a§ with an augment, as in 
ukclZu), see § 67. 2. c), 2d. pers. $&i§ and 
^ei(7^a, also |cV0a, 3d. pers. pw, Ep. #§E8 and 
l^ecy, dual yfiarov or $<rrov, 3d. pers. purm or 

yVTY}V, plur. ^SftylfV Or $(7jU£V, $&£«"£ Or yCTTE, 

pzaav or ^av. — Epic collateral forms of this 
plusqmpf. are 1st. pers. wBeiv, 2d. pers. itdSsig 
or w§vq, 3d. pers. w$u, w^v or tJec^e.— As fut. 
to olSa stands uaofxai, I shall know. 

E'iku), I am like, besides the fut. eigm usual only in 
the older language. The common language 
has the perf. 2. ioiKa, Ion. oLca, 1st. plur. eoiica- 
fjLtv and £oiy/x£v in the present signification, 
partic. zotKbjQ, Ion. oi/cwc, Att. «kwc (which is 
always used by the Attics for the signification, 
probable, reasonable, while zoikujq in Attic only 
signifies similar), plusqmpf. kyictiv. — Epic colla- 
teral forms without a connecting vowel are 
uktov and ukttiv, as 3d. pers. dual perf. and plus- 
qmpf., and tUkto or ukto as 3d. sing, plusqmpf. 
with a passive form. 

*EiXw and uXeu. Att. hXew, I press, fut. aX^o-w, 
&c, Epic writers adopt forms from the 
root 'EAQ, as aor. iXaa, inf. iXacu or eeXffai, 
part. eXaag, perf. pass. mA/mii, aor. 2. pass. £<xXr?v 
or EaXr^v, and as 3d. pers. sing, plsqmpf. pass. 

£oX?JTO, 



304 ETYMOLOGY. 

ElpapTai, see MEIPOMAL 

EIttuv, to say, used only as an aor., indie. a7rov, 

conj. aVw, opt. ELiroijULi, imperat. uwe, in the plur. 

besides dirsrs also iWfre, part, eittwv. Besides 

these also an aor. 1. una, particularly usual in 

the imperat. uttov, u-n-ara), &c. 
Eipio, I say, as a pres. only in Epic, fut. c^o>, Att. 

spio, pf. siprfica, pf. pass. upn]jxai y flit. eipiiaojULai (with 

a middle form and a passive signification), 
aor. pass. upri%v Ion., eppffiw Att, inf. pr\%vai, 
part. prfiuQ, fut. pY)%<jofxai from a root PEQ. 

E'/pw, / connect together, perf. pass, ap^ai, plus- 
qmpf. esp/jLviv. 

E'/ai^a, see'ESw, 

'EXavvw and cXaw, / t/rwe, fut. tXacrw, Att. cXw, 

cXac, cXa, &C, inf. kXav, aor. riXao-a, pf. fXr)Xa/ca, 
pf. pass. iXriXafnai, 3d. plur. Ep. sXrjXaSarai for 
eXrjXavTai, aor. pass. T?XaSrjv. 

'EAEY9Q, 'EAY9Q, EAOQ, see'Epx ^'- 

^''EXtto/ucu, I hope, pf. ioXira, plsqmpf. swXTrav (comp. 

§ 67. note 2.) 

'EAQ, see Alp™. 

'ENErKQ, 'ENEIKQ, see Qlpu. 

# 'Ep£ttw, also eweirw, 1 relate, tell, aor. 2. evktttov, 
conj. £v/cr7rw, opt. sviWotjut, imperat. sW7re, inf. 
tvi<T7ruv, fut. evio-TTTiffw and ev/^w. — From it must 
be distinguished hy'inno or hvlaah), I chide, 
address harshly, to which the double form of 
the aor. 2. yiv'nrairov and kvzvnrov (as it is to be 
read instead of kvkvnrrov, according to Buttmann 
in the Lexilog. p. 279—290) belongs. 

* 'EvfjvoSe, is or lies thereon, an old perfect form 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 305 

with the signification of the present and aorist, 
used only in composition, as £7r£vr)vo$£ and the 
like formed from an obsolete root 'EN9Q by 
the insertion of o, or from 'ENE9Q by change of 
the vowel and in both cases with the Attic 
reduplication (Buttmann, Lexilog. p. 266 
foil.). 

* 'Eviwtw, see under 'EvfVw. 

* ( 'Evvv}ii 9 I dress, in the pres. formed regularly 
like SuKWfii, takes an augment only in the 
perf., fut. £<joj and eg-™, aor. laaa, inf. «rai, perf. 
pass, zlfxai and in compounds also tafiai, plsqpf. 
pass, tlfiriv, 2d. pers. uoo and eaao, 3d. pers. hro 
and jeeoto (from co/iijv, Ua^v^. 

*'E7ravp£iv, to enjoy, as inf. aor. 2. from the indie. 
kirryupov, conj. kwavpu), aor. 2. mid. tTrrjvpofjLtiv, aor. 
1. tTTYivpa/uiriv, fut. £7raup^(rojua«. The present is 
£7ravpi<jKU) of rare occurrence. 

'E7rt(TTajuat, I know, impf. ?77ri(Trajurjv (like tarafiai), flit. 
€7riGTr)<JO[iai, aor. yittiot^vv, 

* r 'E7rw, lam occupied, am about something, takes 
£i in prefixing the augment, impf. uttov, aor. 2. 
kWov, conj. otttw, inf. airuv (used only in com- 
pounds). — The mid. £7ropu, I follow, is also 
much used in prose, impf. utto/ulw, fut. fyofiai, 

aor. 2. £(77TOjurjv, COnj. auiofjiai and £<r7Tfa>juai, opt. 

(nroifxriv and £(T7rotjui]v, imperat. (tttou, Ep. otteo, 
also (ttteio, inf. (ttteVScu and kcnri^ai, Partic. <77ro/u£- 
voc and £<r7ro^£voc The forms of the modes of this 
aor. 2. with € prefixed are peculiar to the poets 
alone, and can never be used in composition. 
'Epauy, I love, has besides the pres. only the impf. 

x 



306 ETYMOLOGY. 

rjpwv with an active form. The remaining 
tenses have a passive form but are used in an 
active signification, aor. fipaaSvv, fut. epaG%GOfxai. 
The pres. kpCofiai alone has also a passive signi- 
fication.— A poetic collateral form with an active 
signification is ipapai, aor. npaaa^v. 

"EVTQ and ?p8w, see 'P^w. 

"Epofiai, I ask, occurs in the general language only 
as aor. : ypofiriv, vp^ro, to which the remaining 
modes must also be added, although the inf. 
is accented ipeaSai as well as spiaSat. — Fut. 
Ipriaofmi. All deficiency is supplied by fpwraw. 
The lonians have instead of it pres. upofxm, 

impf. upojiiriv, fut. iipriaofiai. 

f/ EjO/>w, I go away. Fut. eppfcio, aor. vppwa- 
'EpvSalvtt) also tpevSw, I make red, fut. kpx&ri&w, aor. 

7)pv%va and rjpevaa, perf. ?7pv^??/ca. 

* $ EpvKw, I keep back, fut. l/>v£w ? aor. l.ipvZa (rare), 

USUal. aor. 2. ripvicaKov* 

^Ep^ofxm, I go, forms from 'EAEY9Q fut. hXzvGoixai 
or eXwffovfiai, aor. 2. ijXvSov, Att. iJXSov, Dor. 
rivSov, inf. IXSav, imperat. IXSI, &c. perf. e\r}Xv%a, 

Ep. also uXi}Xov%. 
Eu^fo), ko%ev$(i), I sleep, fut. £u^?iffo>, jeaSft/Srjcra), im- 

perf. e/caSfeuoov, more rarely Ka%vSov and /ca&uSov 
(see §. 68. Not. 2.) 
EvpiGKG), I find, from, *E¥PQ, aor. zvpov, imperat. 

svpe, fut. evpriGM, j)f. svpyica, pf. pass. E&£>tyicu, aor. 

pass, zvp&riv, aor. mid. zvp6p,v)v and evpajuirjv. 

"EySbptdt, I am hated, fut. aySfiGopai, pf. ri^/itu. 

-E%w, / kw ? fut. ?5w and g^gm, aor. c^ov, inf. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 307 

d^av, conj. ayu, opt. o-^oiV* imperat. ayj, usual. 
ayjq (for ayj&i, according to the conjuga- 
tion fit), pf. iayjqica. — Pass. pf. i(jyjif.iai, aor. 
hoypriv, fut. a^%(JOf.iai.~ Mid. fut. l^Ofiai and 
ayjiaopai, aor. kay6fir\v. — From the root 2XQ, 

whence the aor. is borrowed, a new pres. is 
formed with the prefix i ioyu (I hold, keep), to 
which also the fut. <r^(rw belongs in significa- 
tion. 

The following as compounds of e^w must be 
adduced on account of certain irregularities : 

(1) avzyo}iai 9 I endure, takes a double aug- 
ment (according to §. 68. not. 3.), impf. rivuyo- 

Hr\v, aor. rjvtGyofAYiv. 

(2) ainrzyu, I wrap up, impf. afnrei'xpv, fut. 
afx(j>£^(v, aor. rijunriayov, inf. ajXTriayuv, — Mid. afxiri- 
yo/uai or ajjanayyovfxai ( I have OTl), fut. afKJti^ofiai, 
aor. TifXTTiayo^v *)• 

(3) vTri<jyvovtiai, I promise, fut. viro(fyj]aofxai, 

aor. u7Tf(T^ojur/v, imperat., from the passive, vttoct- 

yj%r\Ti, pf. virkayjifiai. 

''E^u, J&»7, fut. £$fff&j &c. verbal, adj. i$6% and 

VpVJOQ, £\pr}T£OQ. 

z. 

Zau), I live, takes in contraction (according to §. 
77. Obs. 5) r? instead of a, 2d pers. £#c, 3d pers. 
Zy Sec. inf. ^a?. — Imperat. Zrfti (according to the 
conjugation fit), impf. ilwv, ilng, &c. 

* The w stands in these forms, on account of the following x» 
instead of <£— -properly dfi^£^ia t i]fi<btax ov (f ov «f t ^ t€ 'X ft '> a '/*" 

x2 



308 ETYMOLOGY. 

Zwyvvfxi, I join, flit. &v£o>, &C. aor. 2. pass, elvyrjv. 

Zuvwfii, I gird, fut. ^o)(rw &c. pf. pass, '^wctjucu, aor. 

H. 

"H/iat, J^Y, ?5(Tae, r)rai OX narai, &C. inf. T/<y$ae, impe- 
rat. ri<ro, riff^w, &C, impf, ^ur?J>, tJcto, 7)TO, Or yi<jto. 

In prose the compound /caSr^cu, which generally 
takes the augment in the preposition, is more 
usual, impf. f/caSr^v, and also forms peculiar 
modes, conj. KaStojuai, opt. Ka%i^ir\v, imperat. 
Ka%<jo, also koSov (for koSzgq with the <* dropped). 
As varieties of dialect the collateral forms of 
the 3d plur. rtvrai and wvro are to be observed, 
which in Ionic are larai, laro and in Epic tiarai, 

uaro, 

e. 

9ANQ, see 0vWw. 

Qa7TT(o, I bury, forms from the root OA<£>Q 

(comp. §. 15. not. 6.) fut. Oaxfjd), aor. i%a\fsa, 
pf. rkrafya, pf. pass. rk^a^jxai, aor. 1. pass. t%(j>%tiv 

(see §. 15. D. Exceptions), aor. 2. kra^v and so 
on. — -From this is to be distinguished the obso- 
lete form 9A0Q, / am astonished, from which 
rk%ira as a pf. 2. with a present signification 
(where the second aspirata is changed into the 
tenuis) and irafyov as an aor. 2. occur in the poets. 

Beu), I run, fut. SevGOfxai or Sevaov/xai. The remain- 
ing tenses are supplied by the forms of rpe^to. 

Biyyavo), I touch, forms from $tyw, fut. Si'Sw and 

Si£ojuatj aor. iSiyov* 

QvriGKM, I die, forms from 9ANQ, aor. i%vov, fut. 
%vovfxai 9 perf. T^y»ifca (by transposition of the 

5 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 309 
radical letters), besides the syncopised forms, 

1 plur. T&va/uzv, 3 plur. r&vaai, Opt. Tt&vairiv, 

imperat. r&vaSi, inf. r&vavai, partic. r&vr\Kuq, 
together with r&vsug, tzSvyjuq, t&vuwq. — From 
the pf. is formed a fut. rcSvriSw and r^v^ofxai, in 
frequent use with the Attics. 

Ooptw and OOPQ, see Qpwaicw. 

OPEOQ, see 1>ty«. 

OPEXQ, see T^w. 

OpvirTb), I bruise, fut. Sptyto, &c. aor. 2. pass, krpv- 
<j>riv (see §. 15. not. 6). 

# 9jowa/co>, I spiking, forms from 90PQ aor. 2. &opov, 

fut. ^Ojoovjuat. 

6Y$Q, see Tfyw. 

Gua>, I sacrifice, fut. Sutrw, &c. aor. 1. pass. ztv%v 
(see {. 15. D. Exceptions, 1). 

I. 

"IAQ, see Effiw. 

f 'I£w, /ca^i^w, I seat, make to sit, fut. tj^w, /caSi^rJa-w, 
or /ca^iw (for fcaSi(ra>, according to §. 73. 2. a) aor. 

£Ka^i(ja, &C. 

'lAcveo/uat, more rarely i'/cw, / coT/ze, fut. i£a>, usual. 
t'So^at, aor. I£a, usual, <£ov (according to J. 75. 1. 
1. d), aor. mid. ik6hy\v, pf. lytxai. In prose the 
compound a<jnKViOfiai is alone used. 

IXaff/cojucu, I propitiate, appease, fut. iX acrobat, Epic 
iXao-o-o^iat (from the root iXao/iat or i\h pai, which 
are still used in single forms with the Epic 
writers), aor. IXaaawv. Of the active iXaw or 
iXrjjut, i" am propitious, an imperat. iXrfci, and of 
the perf. a conj. tXrl/cw, opt. iXriKoifu, occur with 
the Epic writers. 



310 ETYMOLOGY. 

Iwrapai, see Treropat. 

K. 

*KAAQ, a primitive for the derivation of seve- 
ral verbal forms: (1) for teal wpai, lam distin- 
guished, excel, perf. KZKaapai, plsqpf. e/cs/cacrpjv. 
(2) for /07&0, I trouble, fut. KeKadr)<jio, aor. 2. inf. 

KZKaSelv, partic. KZKaSwv (/ce/ca^av riva rtvoc,) to 

trouble one about something, i. e. to deprive, 

mid. la^opai, I am troubled, fut. KE/ca&Vo/iue, pf. 

KtKrjda with a present signification. (3) for 
)(a£w or ya'Coixai, I give way, aor. 2. ke/cciSoju^v, be- 
sides the regular kya.aap.riv Or hyatjaapnv . 
KaSe^o^tcu, /caStuSa), icaSypai, fca§i£a>j see VCopai, eu£&j, 

Ka/vu/xai, see KAAQ. 

Katw, / ferw, Att. /caw (with long a and without 

Contraction), fut. Kavaw, aor. iicavaa, perf. /ckau/ea, 

pf. pass. KtKavpai, aor. 1. pass. EjcavSqv, aor. 2. 
pass. Ejcatpc. Besides the given form of the aor. 
1. must be observed the double Epic formeW* 
and iictia and the Attic 'Urn (all formed without 
<r, see §. 75. 1. 1. d), conj. Knot, opt. Knaipi, impe- 
rat. kuov, inf. kwi, part. Kao?. Also in Epic 
tKrjapvv and stQuapriv occur in the middle form. 

KaXea), I Call, fut. KaXeaa), Att. /caXw, aor. 1/caXecra. 
pf. /C£/cXr?/ca, aor. pass. ekX^v, pf. pass. KEKXypai, 

I am named, am called, opt. KfucXypriv, /cl/cX^o, &c. 
fut. pass. K\n%<jopai and tcejcXfiaopai. Mid. in the 
same signification with the act., fut. KaXovpai 

(for KaXiaopai), aor. hcaXzaapr)v, 

Kapvoj, I groiv weary, fromKAMQ, aor, 'Uapov, fut. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS- 311 

Kafiov/nai. perf. Kk/xriKa (by transposition of the 
radical letters), part. ke/cmtjkwc, Ep. kek firing. 
Keifiai, I lie, 2d pers. Kuaai &c. conj. KEwpu, /c%and 

SO On, Opt. KEo'^ir\v, imperat. keIgo, inf. /caaSat, 
part. kei^ievoq, impf. ekei/jlyjv, ekeigo &C. lut. Kucrofxai. 

Epic and Ionic collateral forms of the 3 plur. 
pres. are Kuarai and ukarai for mvrai. In com- 
position with prepositions the accent recedes 
in the indie, to the preposition, but in the inf, 
it remains on the root ; e. g. KaTaKupai, but ko,- 

TClK£l<T%ai. 

Kzpavvvfii, I mingle, from KEpdw, which is still found 
in the Epic language, fut. Kepaaio, Att. k^w, aor. 

EKEpaea, Ep. KzpaGGa, also EKprj^a, pf. KEKpaica, pf, 
pass. KEKpafxai and KEKEpa<rp.ai, aor. pass. EKpa^v 
and EK.Epaa%r)v. 
Kepdaivo), 1 gain, fut. K£p$avu) and KtpSriau), aor. £K£f>- 
$r?va, EKepSava and EKEpSrjea. 

Kr$(jj, see KAAQ. 

Klpvrifu, an Epic collateral form of Kspavvvjii, which 

see. 
Ki^avw, I reach, overtake, conj. ici^w, Ep. Kvyzita, 

opt. ftrt^ctijv, inf. Kiyj\vai, part. KiyEiq, impf. 3 dual. 

/a^rrjv, all formed from KIXHMI, fut. Kiyjtow 

and Kiyyaofiai, aor. 2. k'/ct^ov (see §. 82. B. 5 and 

, 3)- 

Kt)(pi?jut, see Xpao>. 

KXa&u, I SOUnd, fut. /cXa-y&u, aor. 1. iytcayia, pf, 2. 
K£/cXrjya, aor. 2. £/cXa-yov. 

KXa/w, I weep, Att. /cXaw (with long a, and without 
contraction), fut. Kkavao^ai or /cXai;<xov/«u, aor. 



312 ETYMOLOGY. 

£K\avaa, pf. KEicXavKa. — The fut. icXairjGw or KXaiiata, 

is more rare. 
* KXuw, / hear, imperat. k\v%i and kekXuSi. 

KopevvvfM, I satisfy, fut. Kopkao), aor. ZKopzaa, pf. kb- 

Kopriica, perf. pass. zcE/copco-pn, Ion. and Ep. ksko- 

prjjtiai. 

*Kopv(T(Tit), I arm, perf. pass. KtKopvfyat (see § 70. 

Note 2.). 
Kpaloj, usual. KtKpaya, I cry, (see § 70. Note 4.) 1 

plur. KEKpayptv, imperat. KtKpaySi, fut. KtKpa^o/uiai, 

it ■*> 

aor. eicpayov. 

Kpe^avvvfiU, I suspend, pass. /cpuavvu/xai, I am sus- 
pended, and as a mid. I" suspend myself; Kpzfxa- 
fiai (like ioTaiiai), I hang, to which conj. Kpt^u- 

fxai, opt. Kpe/uaijj,r}v, fut. act. Kps/jiaGO), Att. KptfxCj, 

aq, a, &c. The aor. pass, l/cpcjuo^v is common 
to the pass. mid. and intransit. ; but the fut. 

pass. Kp£/uLaG%aofiai belongs Only to Kp^avvviiai, 

since Kpzfiaj.mi has a peculiar fut. Kp^aofxai, I 
shall hang, hover. 
Kthvcj, I kill, root KTE (see § 82. A. 1.) and by 
changing the vowel KTA, fut. ktevw, Ion. Kraveio, 
aor. 1. iicTEiva, aor. 2. tKravov, besides Ep. 'Utciv, 
«c, a, (formed according to the conjugation /u,as 

iSpav from §i§pa(TKu>), 3 plur. k'/erav for £KT<wav, 
COnj. ktH), inf. /cravat, KTafizvai, Krafiev, part. /C7ac, 
pf. f/cra/ca, USUal. £Krova, aor. 2. pass. Ikto£iy)v OX 

Iktclv%v 3 besides the poetic form tKTapriv as pas- 
sive to the aor. 2. tKrav, 

Kvvew, I kiss, fut. Kwriffofxai or (from KYQ) kikjo>, 

aor. s/cuaa. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 313 

A. 

Aayxa™, / receive by lot or fate, root AAXQ and 
AHXQ (§ 82. B. 5.), fut. X^o/iai, aor. cXo X ov, 
perf. EtXi?xa (§ 66. 2. a), or XkXoyya (as from 
AErXQ). 

Aa/uLfidvoj, I take, root AABQ and AHBQ, fut, Xfyo- 
pai, aor. fe'Xaj3ov, pf. tiXriQa (§ 66. 2. c), perf. pass. 
dXrjfifiai, aor. 1. pass. sXri^v, aor. 2. mid. cXa/3o- 
/i»?v. — The Ionians form perf. XsXajSrj/ca and (from 
AAMBQ) fut. Xdfvpofiai, aor. pass. eXdfx^v, pf. 

pass. XeXajuifiai, aor. mid. tXa{i\pd. fxr\v. 

AavSdvw, more rarely XrjSw, / am concealed, fut. 

X?7<yw, aor. cXa^ov, perf. XtX^a. — Mid. XavSavo/Jiai, 

more rarely Xi)$oju<u, I forget, fut. Xfiaopai, aor. 

tXaSopjv, perf. XcXqffjuat. 

Aa/ccw or XdoKu), I resound, aor. 2. k'Xa/cov, fut. Xa- 

Kr\(JOfxai, pf. XeXafca and XsX^/ca. 

Aeyw, (1) /*ay, forms no pf. act. in this significa- 
tion, but uses instead of it upvKa (see «pw), other- 
wise wholly regular, fut. Xsgw, aor. iX£a, perf. 
pass. XsXeypai, aor. 1. pass. kXe^v. — (2) I ga- 
ther, fut. Xefo, &c. perf. £1X0^ perf. pass. elXty- 

fiai, aor. 2. pass. fXeyrjv, fut. 2. pass. XeyrjGOfxai.— 

(3) Middle Xeyofiai, I lay myself down, fut. 
Xe£o^cu, aor. kX^dfxr\v, besides Xekto (as 3 pers. 
sing. aor. 2. without a connecting vowel) 
and Xe^eo or Xt£o (as imperat., see § 75. I. 

1. d.). — AiaXsyofiai, I converse, as SiaXeypat, pf., 

but SieXe^v in the aor., so that it unites in itself 
the forms given under 1 and 2. 
AHBQ, see Aapfidva). 



314 ETYMOLOGY. 

At)%u), see Aav3avfa>. 
AHXQ, see hay yaw. 

Aovw, I wash. In this verb the Attics almost in- 
variably contract the connecting vowel of the 
termination with the ov ; e. g. 3 impf. iXov, plur. 

eXov/jLev, pass. pres. Xovpai, &C. inf. XovaSai. 

M. 

* Mato^at, see MAQ. 

MAKQ, / bleat, from this obsolete primitive form 
there remain only the aor. 2. ifiascov and the perf. 
/inject, partic lULSfxaKvIa, which are associated 
with the common pres. finKaoiiai. 

MavSdvu), I learn, from MA9Q, aor. i[ia%v, fut. m«- 

%(JOfxai, pf. }iz}Aa%r}Ka (§ 82. B. 3.). 

*Mapvajuai, I fight y usual only in the pres. and 
impf. ; opt. fiapvolfiriv (§ 79. Obs. I. 4.). 

Ma^Ojuat, I fight, fut. iiaykaojiai and tiayj)aofiai, Att. 
Iiayovfiai (§ 73. 2. a), aor. kfxay^(rdp.r\v 3 perf. ^U£fia- 
yjEGfxai and fi2fiayjq^mi. 

*MAQ, an obsolete primitive form, signifies (1) 
JT desire, strive, and has in this signification 

Only pf. juE/iaa, 1 plur. fitpapev, part. fiEjuawc* gen. 

oroc and wroc, and plusqpf. 3 plur. pspaaav. — 
(2) / taste, feel, in which the pres. {xaiopai is 

USUal, fut. juao-o/xac, aor. e/aaad/JLtiv. i 

* Mcipojuai, / obtain, from the root, MEPQ, pf. c/i- 

/uopa, pf. pass. tipapTai, it is ordained by fate 
(respecting the augment, see§ 66. 2. c). 
MeXXa) s I am about, am to come, imperf. rijieXXov (see 
§66. 2. d.), fut. ^XXfow, &c. (according to § 82. 
B.3.). 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 315 

Mi\(x) y I concern, give concern to, lie at the heart of, is 
mostly used in the active form only as an im- 
personal ju£/\a, fut. \LiKy\au, &c. (according to 
§ 82. B. 3.), pf. Ep. juspjXti mid. pekofiai, I am 
concerned, fut. jusX/jo-o^ai, aor. cjueXt^v, &c. 

MepfiXwKa, seeMOAQ. 

Wikvu, I remain, perf. 1. n^v^ica, perf. 2. fikfiova. 

Miywfxi, also jULiayoj, I mix, fut. fii^d), aor. £f*i£a, perf. 
pass. pEfuyfjiai, aor. pass. e(xi^%v, aor. 2. pass. 

kjxiyr\v, 

MifjLvrjGKCj, I remind, from MNAQ, fut. /hvwoj, Sec. — 
mid. fjLi^vrjdKo/jLaL, I remember, mention, aor. k^a- 
%v, fut. f.ivy]a%aofxai. — perf. ptfivrjfiai, I am mind- 
ful of, think of, remember, conj. /uejuvcdjwu, opt. pip- 
vypriv and /^vwftp (see § 77. Obs. 3.), to which 
fut. fisfjLvi'iGoiLiai, I shall bear in mind. 

*MOAQ, / go, fut. poXov/jiai, aor. k'/ioXov, pf. fxk^ 
/3Xw/ca (formed from MAOQ by transposition of 
the radical letters, therefore properly ^Xw/ca, 
and by the insertion of j3, according to § 15. 
Note 4., /ue^uj3Xw/ca). The usual present thereto 

is /3Xw(TKW. 

* MvKao/jLai, I bellow, aor. z/ulvkov, perf. ixkjxvKa (from 



MYKQ), 



N, 



Natcu, I dwell, fut. vaeaofiai, aor. kvaaactfxriv (by an 

Epic reduplication of g, according to § 75. I. 1. 
d.) and kvaa^v (with a passive form), pf. vkvaajuai. 
— The aor. 1. act. ivaaaa, has the transitive sig- 
nification, / bring into a dwelling. 



316 ETYMOLOGY. 

Na'ww, / stuff, fut. vaZw, aor. iva'£a, perf. pass, vs- 

va^at (see § 70. Note 2.). 
Nl/xw, / distribute, fut. vejuw and v£^<rw, aor. ivEipa, 

pf. Vivkfir)Ka, aor. pass, kv&fxr^nv and IvtjUcSqv. 
New, / swim, fut. VEvaofxai and V£U(rou/icu, aor. is vcvcra, 

&c. 
N/fcw, / wtf,s^, borrows its tenses from viVrw, fut. 

vtyw, &C. 



o* 



"O&o, / smell, fut. oft™ (§ 82. B. 3.), perf. ZSwSa 

with a present signification. 
O'lyti) or oiyvufu; usually avoiywfu, I open, imperf. 

avkuyyov, aor. aveoj^a, inf. avoi£ai, perf. 1. aveioj^a, 

pf. 2. aveioya, with an intransitive signification : 
/ stand open (respecting the augment see § 67. 
Note 3.). — Epic writers generally use only 
the temporal, not the syllabic augment, and 
to is then lengthened into wi ; e. g. aor. 1 . 

tJL^a, &C. 

OlSa, seeEfflw. 

Olofiai, or ol/uai, I think, 2 pers. olu (the form oly 
obtains only for the conj. ? never for the indie), 

impf. wopriv, also wV*?v. — fut. oirjcrojutu, aor. (orj%v, 

inf. owSrivai. — Epic writers lengthen the diph- 
thong, and say oiofmi, or with an active form 
oiw, and form the remaining tenses to it regu- 
larly ; e. g. aor. Hiaapnv and i&Sitiv, &c. 

Oiyopai, I depart, or am gone, fut. oiyfiaofxai, perf. 
w^juai, or in an active form with w o'/^w/ca. 

OlQ, see Olopai and $£$>w. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 317 
OXurSaivw or o\i<y%v(*), I slide, fut. o\ia%<jM, aor. 

"OWviii, I destroy, from 'OAQ, fut. oXItrw, Att. oXw, 
aor. wXtaa, perf. oXwXs/ca. — Mid. oXXv/uat, I perish, 
fut. oXov/xat, aor. wXopjv. The perf. 2. oXwXa has 
also the signification of the mid. 

' Ofiw/mi, I swear, fut. o/novfiai, aor. lojuocra, perf. ojuw- 
juoKra, perf. pass, opwfioapai, but in the 3d person 

also OfnojuiOTai, 4 

OfiopyvvfJii, I ivipe off, fut. o/iop£&>, &c. 

'Ovlvrifu*, I am of use, forms the pres. and imperf. 
like Ujrjfu, but the remaining tenses from the 
primitive 'ONAQ, fut. ovri<rw, aor. wvwa. — Mid. 
ovlvapat, I have advantage, aor. 2.wva / unv, Ep. and 

Ion. also tovf)fxr)V, Opt. ovaijuriv, infin. bvaaSai. 

*"Ovofiai, I revile, pres. and imperf. like SiSo'pai, 
the rest from 'ONOQ. — Fut. ovoaofxai, aor. wvo- 

<safir\v and JtvoffStyv, also wvafxrfv. 
'OTIQ, i" see, pf. *o7T<i>7ra, fut. Qipofidi, aor. w^rjv 

(with an active as well as a passive significa- 
tion). Pass. perf. ifi/xai, fut. bffiaofxai. 

'Opaio, I see, impf. ewowv (§ 67. Note 3.), Ion. topwv, 
perf. fwpafca, perf. pass, tupapai, aor. pass. cwoaSrjv. 
All the remaining forms are wanting to this 
verb and are supplied by those given under 
'OTIQ and A. 

*Opvvpi t I excite, from'OPQ. Fut. op™, aor. l.wpaa, 
aor. 2. wpopov (with the Attic reduplication), 
mid. opvvnai I arise, aor. wpapriv, or by rejecting 

* With a particular reduplication instead of ovrifii. 



318 ETYMOLOGY. 

the connecting vowel, wpfxnv, 2d. pers. Z>p<jo, imp. 

opcro Or bpGEo, pf. opioptfiai, USlial. optt)pa, 
Ovtypaivofxai, I smell } fut. oafpriaofxai, aor. ioafypofxriv, 
aiSO OG(j)pa/j,riv, 

'QtpuXw, lam indebted, am obliged, must, fut. o<j>u\t}<*(jj, 
&c. The aor. 2. w^Aov is used merely to designate 
a wish : O that ! would that I and the more usual 
pres. is o^Xtcr/cavw, fut. o(j>\f}Gto, Sec. 

n. 

HAOQ, see ria^w. 

Uailw, I jest, fut. Trai&pai and 7rcu£oi)/iat (see § 75. 
III. 8.), aor. 1. fVauya, pf. TTEiraiKa, perf. pass. 

TTeiraKT/jLai and iriiraiyiiai (comp. §. 70. Note 5.). 

Umu), I strike, fut. usually irainaw, but the remain- 
ing tenses regular, aor. tiraiaa, perf. 7r£7rcu/ca, 

aor. pass. sVcuo^rjv. 

riacr^w, / 5?^fer, from I1A9Q, aor. e7ra%v> from 

XIEN9Q, pf. 7T£7roi£a, fut. 7TUGO{iiai.— The pf. 2. 

-irkirrfta, aor. £7rrj(ra, fut. Trricrofxai. are more rare 
and proper to the poetic language alone. — A 
peculiar Homeric form is ttettwSe as 2d. pers. 
plur. perf. 

rh&w, I persuade, proceeds regularly in the act. 
but forms besides the aor. 1. iiruaa an aor. 2. 
iirtiov, Ep. ttettiSov, and likewise an Epic fut. 
7r£7ri£rj(7w. — Pass, and mid. ird%fxai, I believe, fol- 
low, likewise with an aor. 2. 7r£7riSojui]v.— The 
perf. 2. TrtTro&a, I trust. 

TlzXaZo), / make to approach, bring near, regular up 
to the Epic forms of the aor. y\\\\iv\v (as mid. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 319 

according to the conj. p) and tt^Xikj^v (with a 
passive form), 
ILVpwrai, see IIOPQ. 

Uetttw, see ITeo-orw. 

* Uep^u), I lay waste, aor. 2. iwpo&ov (by transposi- 
tion of the radical letters). 

Il£(Tcra>, 7T£rrw, 1 ^oi/, fut. iriipv, &C. from 7r£7rTW. 
TLeaelv, see IIiirTw. 

IIcTavvu/it, / spread, fut. 7r£Ta<7w, Att. 7rErw (see § 

73 a . 2. a.), perf. pass. Trkirraixai (for 7T£7r£raor/ucu), 
aor. pass. fTTfraffSrjv. 

fl£To/uat, / fly. From this primitive form by- 
syncope aor. £7rrojurjv, inf. 7rr£<xScu, flit. irs.Tr]CfOfxai, 

usual. 7rrri(rojuai. According to the conjugation 
p.i are formed : pres. ir&afiai and ivra/Mdtj aor. 
£TTTafxr}v or with an active form eirr-nv, inf. 
7rrrivat, part, 71-rae, pf. 7T£7rrr?K:a. — Besides these 
Epic writers use the lengthened forms iroraofiai, 
Trcoraojuat, also iroTtofiai (§ 82. Not. 4. 3.), the 
tenses of which are formed regularly, pf. 7T£7ro- 

T7]jj,ai, &C. 

nETQ, see Itinrai. 

IIci&ojucm, see UvvSavofiai. 

Uriyvv/M, Ifix, fut. Trrj^b), &C, aor. pass, kmiy^nv, 
aor. 2. pass, hiraynv. — Perf. 2. Trhrjya, I stand 
fast. 

HlfivXrifii, I Jill, inf. 7rtjU7rXavai, formed by redupli- 
cation from the root TIAAQ, wherein fx is in- 
serted to strengthen the syllable. This is fre- 
quently rejected by the poets and also in prose, 
when in composition an additional /u happens 
to stand immediately before the reduplication 

6 



320 ETYMOLOGY. 

•i 

(e. g. £/i7ri7rX^t) — Fut. TrXr/aw, &c, perf. pass. 
TrfiVXijcr^ai, aor. pass. £7rAricrSrjv. — Besides these 
are to be observed an Ep. aor. 2. mid. £7rX^unv 
or TrXrjfjLtiv, opt. Tr\ufxr\v, with an intransitive sig- 
nification, / am fully and a perf. 2. TrkirXr^a, like- 
wise with an intransitive present signification 
and derived from an accessory form 7rXr)So>, 
which is also not unusual as a pres. 

n/prpTjjui, / set on fire, inf. Trinirpavai, proceeds in 
the pres. and impf. like Urrjfii, the remaining 
forms from ITPAQ or 7rp^w, thus fut. ir^^> &c. 
aor. pass. IVp*i<xS?jv. — Here also the /u inserted 
to strengthen the syllable is omitted, when an 
additional ju accedes immediately before the 
reduplication ; e. g. £^7ri7rp^t. 

Tlivw, / drink, from I1IQ, fut. wiofiat (see § 73. 2. 
a.) aor. 2. iiriov, inf. -muv, &c. imp. thS*.— All 
the rest from IIOQ, perf. irk-nuKa, perf. pass, irk- 

iropai, aor. pass. kiro^r\v, fut. pass. 7roSr/<ro^ai. — 

The forms wl™, imaa have the transitive signf. 
to give to drink, to which TmriaKit) is usual as a 
pres, 

XIe7rpaa7cco, / sell, from irepab), fut. Trspacw, aor. 1. 

£7rspa<ja— then from nPAQ, pf. TrcVpa/ca, pf. pass. 

7Tf7rpapu, aor. 1. £:rpciS?jv, fut. 3. 7T£7rpa<70juat in the 

signf. of the simple fut. pass. 
rhVrw, //a//, forms from ilETQ fut. Trwovpai (see 

§ 75. III. 8.), aor. eWov (see § 75. I. 1. d.)— 

and from I7TOQ pf. TrkimaKa. 
IlIQ, see ITivw. 

IlXa^w, I drive about, see § 70. Note 6. 
I7AAQ, ttXt/Sc^ see YlifiTrXtffii. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 321 
nXtw, I sail, fut. ir\zv(jo(.iai and TrXzwovfjiai (see § 75. 

III. 8. b.), aor. «rXsuffa, &C. pf. pass. irzTrXzvGfiai, 

aor. ettXevo-^v. 
UXriGGd), I strike, fut. 7rX//£w, &c. — Aor. 2. pass. 

eirXriynv, but ill the Compounds EirXdyi^v. — An 

Epic form is the aor. 2. act. TrinXriyov with the 

reduplication. 
UXww, an Ionic accessory form of ttXew, whence an 

aor. 2. iirXhtv according to the conjugation fu, 

partic. 7rXwc. 
IIvelj, I breathe, fut. irvevaio or wvevaovpai (see § 75. 

III. 8. b.) &c. aor. pass. k-rrv&vG^v, pf. pass. 

*7r£7rvu / uai (I possess spirit, am wise). 
IIo&w, / long for, fut. 7ro^£(T(i> and TroSrjdw, usually 

TroStcro^ai, pf. 7reTr6%Ka, pf. pass. TTETroi^ucu, aor. 1. 
pass. £7ro%ea%v. 

JJopuv, iiropov, I gave, a defective aorist with the 
poets. To the same theme (in the sense of to 
distribute) belongs the perf. pass. -Kk-xpurai, it is 
ordained by fate, formed by transposition of the 
radical letters, part. TreTrpw^ivog. 

IIOQ, see ILW 

nPOQ, see Uopelv. 

IITAQ, see UtTavvvfJLi, Ilerofieu. 

YlTnaaw, I cower doivn, fut. 7rr/?$w and the remaining 

forms regular, partic. perf. th-th-wc. 
3ITOQ, see IltWw. 

HvvSavoiiai, I leam, from TTiv^Ofiai (Poet.), fut. tteu- 
ao/iim, aor. tTTvSo/uriv, pf. irtTrvejucu. 



322 ETYMOLOGY. 



'?%<*>, / do, fut. pifo or from EPrQ ipfo, &c. pf. 

topya. 
Piw, I flow, fut. pmffh) and pevcropai, aor. ipptvaa. 

In the same signif. however the aor. 2. kppvw 
(formed according to the conjugation /mi from a 
root 'PYEQ) with the fut. pvriao^ai and perf. 
kppvr]Ka is more usual. 

8 PEQ, / say, see Eipw. 

"Pfiywpi, I rend, fut. p?)$w, &c. aor. pass. eppayt}v.— 
pf. 2. sppuya with an intransitive signf. #3$ raz£. 

'Pi-ycw, i" shudder, fut. piyr)<rw, &C— Perf, 2. # ippiya. 

'PtVrw and purriw, I throw, both forms usual in the 
pres. and impf., all the rest from the first only, 
fut. piipu), &c. aor. 2. pass, epplcpriv. 

*PYEQ, see 'PiV 

'Pwvwp, I" strengthen, fut. pwtrw, &c. perf. pass. 
ipptuGfiai, imperat. ippwao (fareivell). aor. pass. 



2aX7ri£w s / S0W/?J # trumpet, see § 70. Note 6. 

2j3£vviyu, / extinguish, fut. cr^W, &c. perf. pass. 
i<r^<Tjiiai, aor. 1. eV^o-S^.— The perf. iafirnca and 
the aor. 2. £aj3r]F, piur. iufirifizv, inf. <x/3i7vai have 
the intransitive signf. £0 £e extinguished, like the 
passive. 

* %ev(t>, I put in motion, aor. 1. iaawa (formed with 
out a, see § 75. LI. d. and by doubling the <r 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 323 
in annexing the augment according to § 19. 2. 

a. y.), perf. pass, iaevpai, aor. pass. kaav%v. 

^Ke^avvv/jLi^ I scatter, fut. (jKe%a<ju), Att. gkbSu) (see § 
73 d . 2. a.) &c. perf. pass. kaK&aofiai. 

2/ceXXw, I dry up, aor. 1. cWrjXa (an Epic form, as 
from a root 2KAAQ). — Mid. cnceXXopcu, I am 
dried up, fut. (T/cXwo/xat (by transposition of the 
radical letters). — To these on account of a 
signif. likewise intransitive the active forms 
perf. eWXrj/ctt and aor. 2. eWXtjv, inf. cncXrivai 
(formed according to the conjugation fxi) also 
belong. 

^jucib), I smear, 2d. pers. gjiyjq, &c. inf. apjv (see § 
77. Obs. 5.) fu'. g/m'igoj, &c. — Aor. pass, ka^^nv 
(from GfiJiyjS). 

Stthv, CTreaSai, see ' Ettw. 

27rf^w, I pour out, see §. 71. Note 4. 

2r£p£w, / deprive, proceeds regularly ; but in the 
passive is the more simple form (rrepo/icu, to 
which an aor. 2. karkprw, partic. ragfet'c and fut. 
2. ar^^GOfxai are formed. 

2ro£>£vvu/xi, (rropyv/xi and (rr^wvy^u, / spread, fut. 
trro^EO-w and (rr^wcrw, aor. fcrropfca and aarpujaa, 

perf. fdrpwKa — pass. pf. iorpafxai, more rarely 

Effropr^cu, aor. karopea%v and tarpwStyv. 

*2rvy£w, I" abhor, hate, fut. <r™yri<Tw &c. The aor. 
2. effTv-yov is formed from a root 2TYFQ, as also 
an aor. 1. iarvZa with a transitive signf. I make 
to shudder. 

2%£tv, see'^E^fe). 

2w£a>, / ^flue, fut. ffwuw, pf. pass. azGwapai, but aor. 

Y 2 



324 ETYMOLOGY. 

T. 
TAAAQ, I endure, used only in the aor 1. krakaaa, 
Ep. £Ta\acr(ja. The perf. TtVArfKa, pi. by syn- 
cope rhXa/Liev, impemt TerXaSi, inf. rerXavai, 

Ep. TETXdfiev, fut. r\i]GOfjiai and aor. 2. (according 
to the conjug. pi) irX^v, inf. rX?ivat, imperat 
tX^i, opt. rXalriv, part. rXac are formed by trans- 
position of the radical letters. 

TA<X>Q, see San™. 

TAQ, see T«W 

Tc/vw, I stretch, fut. Ttv£, aor. 1. kVctva. From the 
radical form TE, or by change of sound TB (§. 
82. A. 1. and §.71. C. 3.) pf. rkraKa, perf. pass. 

rirafxai, aor. 1. ETc&riV) fut. TC&rjGOfiai, 

TEKQ, see Tkra>. 

Tljuveu, / a*/, forms from TEMQ, fut. r^, aor. 2. 

inpov, and by transposition of the radical letters 

perf. rlr^rj/ca, perf. pass, rcrjUT^cu, aor. 1. p. 

et/jlIj^v. In Ionic this verb is rapv^, from which 

the aor. 2. irapov is sometimes also used with 

the Attics. 
^Teray^v, reaching, seizing, a partic. aor. 2. from 

the same root with TaW 
Tcv^w, in this form two kindred verbs must be 

accurately distinguished : 

(1) Tfi>)(w, / make, fabricate, reg. fut. rcv^w, 

aor. irev^a, pf. rhevya, perf. pass, rkrvypai, 

aor. pass. !ru^*]v. Epic forms of the aor. 2. 
arercru/cov and rErv/co^rjv (by reduplic.) 

(2) Tvyyavu), I happen, acquire, fut. tev£o/mu, 

aOr. £TV)£OV, pf. T£ru^rj/ca. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 325 
Tilers, I bring forth, from TEKQ, fut. re£w-, usual. 

TE^ojuai, aor. ztekov, perf. r£ro/ca. 

Tirpaw, J bore, from TPAQ, fut. rp^w, &c. An 
accessory form more usual with the Attics is 

TZTpalvw, to which fut. rzTpavio, aor. 1. £rfrpr?va. 

The perf. always from the radical form, r£- 

rpt]Ka, pass. rirp7]fiai. 

TiTpwvicoj, I wound, Ep. rpwu), fut. rpbJGio, &c. perf. 

pass. TerpLo^ai, aor. 1. pass, krpuferiv, fut. rpwSriffO- 

^ai and TpuiGOfiai (with the form of the mid., but 

the signf. of the pass.) 
Tib), I honour, is merely poetical and forms regu- 
larly fut. riGb) &c. perf. pass, rkifiai. — At the 

same time however it furnishes the derivative 

tenses also to 

Tivw, I 'pay, atone for, fut. Acno, pf. pass. tLtkj- 

iuai, aor. l.pass. kriG%v. The mid. rivopai, 

fut. Tiaopai, aor. knadfxr]v has the signf. to 

revenge, punish. 

TAHMI, radical form assumed for the formation 

of some tenses of TAAAQ, which see. 
Tpiipijj, I nourish, fut. Sp^w (see §. 15. Not. 5), pf. 

2. T£Tpocj>a, pf. pass. T&pajtAjULai, inf. T&pa<j)%ai, aor. 

2. pass. £Tpa<priv, more rarely aor. 1. fSp^v. 
Tpl^w, / ?7m # fut. Spe&fiai, aor. fS/^a, more usually 

from APEMQ, aor. £§ ; o<^iov, fut. Spa^ou/icu, perf. 

1. S&pa/jLYiKa (see §. 71. c. 6.) perf. 2. S&popia. 
TpuyiD, I eat, fut. rpuj^o/jiai, aor. 2. trpa-yov from 

TPAFQ. 

Tuy^avw, see Tzvyoj. 

Tvtttu), I strike, has usually with the Attics fut. 
TU7TT*i<Tw. — Aor. 2. pass, stutt^v. 



326 ETYMOLOGY. 

Tv<i>(D, I fumigate, burn, fut. %\pw (see §. 15. Note 
5.) — Aor. 2. pass. etv^v. 

Y. 

'Y7n<y)(V£o/iai, see under ''E^w 3. 

<£>ArQ, see'ESw. 

$at'vw, / cawse to appear, fut. $avd>, aor. 1. i^nva, 
aor. 2. c^avov, perf. 2. irk^va, perf. pass, n^aa- 
liai (see § 71. c. 5.), aor. 1. pass. l^avSr/v, aor. 2. 
hfyavnv, fut. tyavjiaofxai. The pass, has an intran- 
sitive signf. / appear, in which the act. also is 
sometimes used. 

^u^ofxai, I spare, fut. $hgoiacli, &c. Epic forms are, 

pf. ire(pi^ri/Liai, USUal. 7T£$a<7/xcu, fut. 3. 7r£^tS?)cro^ae 

(in the signf. of the simple fut.), aor. Trrf&opriv, 
(by reduplic) 
&£pu), I bear, irnpf. e<pepov, pass. pres. tykpofiai, 
impf. zfepofxriv. All the rest are formed partly 
from OIQ, partly from 'ENEEKG!, fut. oUw, aor. 
rivejKov or rjveyKa, Ion. ijv£(/ca (see § 75. I. l.d.), 

perf. kvy]Voya, — Pf. pass, tvrivtypai, Ion. evrjvHyjuai, 
aor. 1. ^v^Sjjv, Ion. tjvei^Sijv, fut, av^y^rjcTo^ai and 
OKrSrjffo/ucu. — Mid. fut. o'lao/uiai, aor. rjvzyicafJLYjv. — In 

Epic several other forms are derived from OIQ 
besides these adduced, as imperat. aor. oioz, 
o'kteto), Sec. (see § 75. I. 1. d.), conj. aor. in the 
3d pers. olay. 
<bript 9 I say, 2 pers. (j>yg, &c. dual. $aroi>, plur. 3. 
pers. tyaai, all formed according to 'iarrijxi, and 
used as enclitics, except the second person 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 327 
(frrig. — Conj. <j>u, Opt. <j>alr]v, imper. <£a$i, inf. $avai, 

partic. <j>as> impf. i<j>w, 2d pers. ifrjg and t^aSa, 
3d. plur. f^affav and poet, ityav, fut. fyrjau), aor. 
£^r?<ra. — Mid. (pafxm in the signf. of the act., inf. 

<paa$ai 9 part. (JHXfxevog, impf. E<j>apr)v» In Epic 7T£- 

QtiGfihog as part, and 7r£$a<xSto as 3d sing, imperat. 
pf. are used with a passive signf.— Besides these 
must be observed the forms used in certain 
combinations after the rejection of <j>, namely, 
?)/uLL for fqptl (as an intermediate proposition on 
repeating an expression, like inquam), nviovi^v 
and r\ for i^, used likewise in intermediate pro- 
positions on quoting the discourse of another, 
and in Homer also after a discourse quoted. 
®%avu), I am beforehand, anticipate, (respecting the 
quantity of a see page 29. 4. c.) forms from 

<J>9AQ, fut. <£$ac7fe> and ffiaopai, aor. 1. ifiaoa, 

aor. 2. iffivv (according totheconjug. jut), conj. 

<f&lio, Opt. <p%airiv, inf. <fir)vai, part. <p%ag, pf. etj&aica. 

Qi\zit), I love, regular, except the aor. efiXaprjv, 

which is used with Epic writers. 
Qvtx), I beget, fut. (pvduj, aor. ityvaa. — Pass, or mid. 

(jivojuai, I arise, grow, also from the act. the perf. 

^vKa, aor. 2. i(j>vv, inf. <j>vvai, part. $vq in the 

same signification. 

X. 

Xaipw, I rejoice, fut. yaiphau or yaipfaofxai, ill Epic 

also Kzyapr]GOfiai and K£yapi]<ja), aor. kyap-qv (ac- 
cording to the conjugation pi), conj. yapu), opt. 

yapunv, imperat. yapitfti, inf. yaprivai, part, yapuq. 

Besides these are to be observed the forms of 



328 ETYMOLOGY. 

the aor. : hyaipwa with later writers, kyjipdpmv, 
and KtyapofATiv in Epic, perf. Kzydpwa, usual* 

KzyapY)pai 3 poet, also Kkyapjxai. 

Xklw, I stool, fut. yjau, usual, yzaovfxai, perf, 2. 

Xew, / pour, fut. yzvGb), aor. 1. £)(,£«, Ep. iyzva 

(formed without the characteristic of the tense 
by merely annexing the termination ; see § 75, 
I. 1 . d.), inf. ykai, imperat.^ov, ^£arw, &C pf. /ct~ 
yytca, perf. pass. Ke^yjuai, aor. pass. eyy%v. 

Xpdoj. Of this verb must be distinguished five dif- 
ferent forms of inflexion with their significa- 
tions, 

(1) Xpaw, I give a response, proceeds regularly, 

inf. xpav, fut. xpyjaoj, &C. aor. pass. e^pJo-Sfyv. 

(2) Ylygr\pi, I lend, proceeds like Urypi 
(yet without aor. 2.)-^-Fut. xph™, aor. 

iy^pr)aa, &C. mid. Kiygapai, I borrow, fut. 
ypr)OOfxai 9 aor. ky^pr\(japr\v. 

(3) Xpdofiai, I use, takes (§ 77. Obs. 5.) r? in* 
stead of a in contraction : 2d pers. ^PV* 

Xprtrai, &C. inf. ^piiaSlai, flit, y^prjaopai, aor* 

tXpYiadfxriv, perf. Ktyjyripai (usually in the 
signf. I want.) — It is remarkable that the 
lonians, when they contract take a here as 
the mingled sound ; e.g. inf. ^oacrSeu. Ge- 
nerally however instead of y^pdopai they 
use the form y^pzofiai, which is regularly 
conjugated throughout; also they change 
o after e into o>, e. g. xpawvrai. 

(4) Xprj, It is necessary, one must, inf. \py]vai, 
opt. xpdr), conj. XPV> P arte \p' ctl) v, * m pf» 



' 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 329 

*XPv v (anomal. accent) or y^pvv (never s'xp*/), 

(5) 'ATro^pr], It is sufficient, 3d plur. airoy^p^Gi 

(v), inf. a7ro^p^v, part, (nroyjpuv, wcra, wv, 

imperf. cnrt^pri, fut. a7ro^pTjff£t. Here also 
the lonians usually take a instead of tj ; 

e. g. impf. airky^pa. 

Xptjjwv/iAi, I colour, fut. xpa' (TW &c. perf. pass, d- 
^pwo-^uai, aor. pass. t^pwaSf^v. 

Xwvvvjuli, I heap up, dam. The radical form you is 
still usual as pres. with the older writers ; to 
this belongs the inf. %ovv, fut. ^wuw, &c. pf. 

pass. KE^wdfiai, aor. pass. zywaSriv. 

Q. 

'Q&w, I push, impf. ewSow (§ 67. Note 2.), fut. w%(tu> 
and (Lao), aor. k'wo-a, pf. kWa, perf. pass, caw/iai, 
aor. pass. cwcrStyv, all from the radical form '06Q 
(see § 82. Note 4.) 



330 ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER IX. 



LESSER PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. All forms occurring in a language besides 
the noun, pronoun, and verb, hitherto treated of, 
are small words, which impart perspicuity, bre- 
vity, accuracy, and connexion, to discourse. These 
are comprehended under the common name of 
particles, and agree together in, and are distin- 
guished from the other parts of speech by this, 
that they occur in only one single form, and are 
wholly incapable of declension and conjugation. 

2. As the use and signification of these can only 
be explained in the syntax, we shall here merely 
enumerate the principal forms thereof, and adduce 
short observations respecting their derivation and 
formation. 

Note. Strictly considered, the adverb, as a word with a com- 
plete and independent idea, does not belong to the class of parti- 
cles. Since, however, it possesses an unchangeableness of 
form in common with particles, it appears most convenient to 
give it a place here among them. 



FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 



331 



Adverbs, 

§ 86. 

FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 

1. In its form the adverb most nearly resembles 
the adjective, to which it is also allied in idea, and 
from which it is mostly derived. 

1. The most usual termination of an adverb is cog, 
which, for a correct formation of the same, requires 
merely to be annexed to the pure root of the ad- 
jective. Thus, e. g. from Ka\6g, root/caX, is formed 
the adverb /ccXwg, from rayyg, root (as is shown by 
the genitive ra^i-og) ray^—Tayiwg, and in like 
manner adverbs are regularly deduced from the 
remaining adjectives ; e. g. 



Adjective. 


Root. 


Adverb. 


aotyog 


ao(p 


(jofywg 


Kaipiog 
pkyag 

<J{i)(j)p(x)V 


Kaipi 
fJieyaX 

<J(jJ(j)pOV 


Kaipiojg 

fjLtya\d)g 

<j(jj(j>pov(i)g 


\apiug 
a\r)%g 


-^ctpisvr 
a\r$e 


yapiivrwg 

aXvSLwg, COntr. a\r]- 

Sug, &C. 



Note 1. As the root of an adjective of the third declension is 
to be recognised most distinctly in the genitive, the following 
rule may be observed for the easier formation of adverbs : 

Change the adjective termination og (nom. or gen.) into wc, 

Note 2. As a rule for the accentuation of derivative adverbs 
in u)q, we must observe, that those formed from adjectives in og 



332 ETYMOLOGY. 

and rjg have a circumflex on the termination, if the adjective is 
accented on the final syllable ; on the contrary, if it is not 
accented on the final syllable, they have an acute on the 
penultimate ; e. g. dicpi(3hJQ from dKpcfirjg, but avSddwg from 
av$rdcr)Q. — Those formed from adjectives in vg are always ac- 
cented on the penultimate syllable ; e. g. Yjd£u)£ from yjcvg. 

3. In many cases the adverb has no particular 
form, but is expressed by an adjective form, thus, 

(a) the neuter adjective, singular and plural, 
is used for an adverb, chiefly by the poets ; e. g\ 

KaXov aa'Sav, to siflg beautifully ; fipayja oVfASuv, to 

recount briefly, 

(b) In like manner also the dat. sing. fern, oc- 
curs instead of an adverb ; e. g. S^oma, publicly ; 
iSlq, privately ; Koivy, in common ; irzly, on foot ; 
ravTrft thus, in this manner, wherein properly a 
substantive is always to be supplied, usually o&£. 

4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives, 
and that in various ways, thus, 

(a) certain forms of substantives are used in the 
signification of adverbs ; e. g. apyjw (in the begin- 
ning), entirely, a/c^v (at the point), scarce; Ko/midy 
(with diligence), very much ; airovSy (with zeal, 
pains), with trouble or difficulty, scarce, hardly. 

(b) Some substantives furnish an adverbial 
sense, when combined into one word with prepo- 
sitions ; e. g. 7rapa^iifia (with the thing), immedi- 
ately, on the spot ; wpovpyov, (77-00 zpyov, for the 
thing, to the purpose) serving the purpose, ser- 
viceable, requisite, useful ; skttoSiov (from before 
the feet), out of the way, aside ; ep7rodwv, in the way, 
impeding. 



FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 333 

Note 3. All such adverbs retain the accent in that place, 
where the rule would require it to stand, if the substantive was 
written separate from the preposition. 

(c) Adverbs are derived from substantives by 
the annexation of certain syllables. In this man- 
ner, a very great number of adverbs are formed, 
the most important of which we shall here enu- 
merate with their subjoined signification : 

(a) By the appended syllables %eu, &, and St, 
are formed adverbs denoting place (abverbia loci), 
in such a manner that the syllable Sty denotes 
direction from a •place, &■ direction to a place, 
and St rest in a place; e. g. ovpavoSev, oUoStv, from 
heaven, from home ; ovpavovSs, oIkovSe (more usually 
ot/caoV), to heaven, home; ovpavoSi, oikoSl (more 
usually oiKoi), in heaven, at home. 

Note 4. Concerning the accentuation of these adverbs, see 
§ 12. 4. 

Note 5. The termination Se is always annexed to an unchanged 
accusative ; but in some names of towns of the first declension, 
which are used only in the plural, the B becomes blended with 
the preceding a of the casal termination into £ ; e. g. 'AB^va^e, 
0r//3a£e, to Athens, to Thebes. This termination '(t occurs also 
in some other words ; e. g. %pa£e, to the door, out. 

Note 6. Instead of the syllable $i, some names of towns have 
at or (Ttv appended, e. g. 'A&ijvriai, at Athens; HXaraiaviv, at 
Platcea. Some other words receive the termination ol, e. g. 
Tor^juoT, at the Isthmus ; o'ikoi, at home. Lastly, adverbs of 
place derived from pronouns are formed by the appended syl- 
lable %ov ; e. g. iravTaypv, every where; aXhaypv, elsewhere; 
hiayov, in some places. 

(|3) By annexing the syllables Sov and ksti are 
formed adverbs, which express comparison ; e. g. 
/3oTpuc\)v, clalter-ivise ; ayeX^ov, in herds ; Kwr\^6v, 
after the mariner of dogs ; 'EWtivhjti, after the 



334 ETYMOLOGY. 

manner of the Greeks; avSpiari, after the manner 
of men. 

(y) The termination aoV forms adverbs signify- 
ing, that something takes place by the application 
of that idea which is contained in the substantive ; 
e. g. \oya$r)v (from Xoyoc), by selection; a^jSoXacV 
(avajSoA/]), with delay. 

5. Adverbs are also formed from verbs, all 
having the termination £V, which is annexed im- 
mediately to the root, wherein however, as is 
self-evident, a preceding tenuis or aspirata must 
change into the corresponding middle letter; 
e. g. Kpvj3^7]v (from k^tttw, root jcpv/3), secretly; 
7TA£y§r?v (from ?rXk-w), in a twisted manner or 
form ; avWrj^v (from avWafifiavw, root <™XX??j3), 
taken together. 

0. Lastly, from some prepositions also are 
formed adverbs, which serve to denote place and 
all terminate in w ; e. g. aw (from ava), above ; 

Kara), beloiV ; i^b), IvitllOlit ; atrw, Within; irpoGto, 

onwards. This w belongs also to some other ad- 
verbs ; e.g. a<jivio, suddenly; ovtw, thus; ottlgid, 
behind; noppto, far. 

7. Besides these there are yet many adverbs, 
whose derivation does not admit of being ac- 
curately pointed out, and which are partly 
obsolete adjective forms, as wXrialov, near ; anfi^ov, 
to-day ; avpiov, to-morrow.' — ay%ov 9 near ; opov, at 
the same time.- — eIkti, in vain ; Sixn, i® a two-fold 
manner ; — partly genuine adverbs with the termina- 
tions a, ac, i, h, oi, ou, re ; e. g. Kapra] pa\a, very ; 

rdya, quickly, perhaps ; iv%, kvrav% 9 here ; 7rlXoc, 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 335 

nigh ; ^EyaXwari, greatly ; ekeI, there ; iravSripu, in 
mass ; vol, whither ? irov, where ? ttote, when ? tote, 
then. All these must be left to particular ob- 
servation and to specification in lexicons. 



§87. 
DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

(I) Degrees of comparison must be formed in 
adverbs as well as in adjectives. The greater 
number of Greek adverbs however have no par- 
ticular forms for the same, but borrow them from 
adjectives, the neutr. sing, of the compar. of the 
adj. serving for the compar. of the adverb, and 
the neutr. plur. of the superl. of the adj. for the 
superl. of the adverb ; e. g. 

Positive. Compar. Superl. 

GOtyZjQ <TO(j)U)TEpOV (JO(j)bJTaTa. 

G(i)typOV<t)Q G(i)(ppOVEGTEpOV GbJ^pOVEGTCLTCi. 

diayotaq ai&yiov dwytara* 

(2) Yet several adverbs form a particular 
comparative in rfyw and a superlative in rarw, 
namely, those principally which have the termi- 
nation w in the positive ; e. g. avis), avtorEpw, avay- 

tcltu). — Eyyvg, EyyvTEpojj EyyvTUTw. And in the same 
manner some other particles form their com- 
parative and superlative ; e. g. fxaKpkv, far, fiaKpo- 

TEpw, fta/cporarw, ayyov, near, ayyoTEpw, ayyoraTW. 



336 



ETYMOLOGY. 



(3) Also some adverbs terminate in their com- 
parative and superlative in wg ; e. g. hXrfii&Q, 

aX^earrepwg, a\t]%GraTO)g, koXioq, kciWiovojq. 

(4) Others have an irregular comparative and 
superlative, after the manner of adjectives ; e.g. 



Positive. 
«7X,i, near 
jitaXa, very 
iripa, beyond 
tAtjc/ov, near 



Compar. 

acjoov 
fxaWov 

TTEpCUTEpii) 

7r\ri<jiaiTSpov OY 
7r\r}(Td<TTepov 



Superl. 

ayyjLGTa 
fiaXiGra 
irepairaTio 
ir\r]Giairara or 
irXrjadcrTaTa, 



§ 88. 



PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTERJECTIONS. 



1. As the use as well as more particular signi- 
fication of prepositions and conjunctions can only 
be explained in the syntax, we here merely class 
them together in a general synopsis. 

A. Prepositions: (1) those which govern only 
one case, namely, (a) the genitive : avA, for, in- 
stead of; a7ro, from; ek (and before vowels £$), out 
of; tWa (or £V£/c£v), on account of ; irpo, before, 
for. (b) the dative : kv, in; avv (&v), with. 
(c) the accusative : dva, up ; «c, (k), into, to, 
towards; wq, to.— (2) those which govern two 
cases, the genitive and accusative : $ia, through, 
because of ; Kara, doiuw, inspecting; virLp, over.— 



PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTERJECT. 337 

(3) Those which govern three cases, the genitive, 
dative, and accusative : d^l, around, about; eVt, 
on, to, against; pera, with, among, after; irapa, from, 
by, to ; irepi, about, of; 7rp6V, to ; vno, under, from, 
by. 

B. Conjunctions : (1) Copulative : kcu, te, and. 
(2) Separative: fxkv — U, indeed, but; rj, or; ovU — 
oh§k, and pjSI — fir}§£, neither — nor ; d\\d 9 but. (3) 

Temporal: ote, wore, orav, oirorav, when, as ; ettei, 

kiru^r}, ETTziSav, when, after; wviKa, wc, when, as. (4) 
Causal : yap, for ; on, because ; cVa, since, as, be- 
cause ; (Ixjte, so that. (5) Intentional : iva, o$pa, 
o7ro)c, wc, that, in order that. (6) Conditional : «, 
rjv, if. 

Note. A fuller exposition and more minute investigation of 
the use and signification of these particles can only be given in 
the syntax. 

2. The interjections, as mere sounds of feel- 
ing, are easily known and understood of them- 
selves, and therefore require no particular enu- 
meration. 



338 



APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. 



§89. 

CONCERNING THE FORMATION OF GREEK 
WORDS. 

1. As it is the business of particular, detailed, 
and difficult investigations, which never arrive 
at complete certainty, to reduce all the exist- 
ing words of a language to their original root, 
or to show how they are derived and formed 
from the same, we here merely understand by the 
expression "formation of words," the undisputed 
derivation of certain words from others, e.g. of 
certain verbs from substantives, &c. 

2 9 Such derivation, however, in the Greek lan- 
guage is not only distinctly manifested in the 
external form, but generally we may also assign 
with tolerable accuracy, what signification must 
belong to a particular class of words derived by 
a definite termination from others. 

3. In this place, therefore, we shall briefly ad- 
duce the most usual and common derivations with 
the subjoined significations. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 339 



§90. 

VERBS DERIVED FROM SUBSTANTIVES AND 
ADJECTIVES. 

(1) Derivative verbs discover themselves chiefly 
by the terminations aw, ku), 6w, evw, a£w, it<t>, alvoj, 

WW. 

(2) All these terminations are annexed to the 
root of the noun, from which the verb is derived, 

€. g. 7rvp 7rvp6& — KOfir} KOfJLaii) — KOipog KOipaveoj — %avfjLa 
^avfxaCd) — aX?7%(,' aXrfiSevu}, &C. 

(3) With respect to signification these deriva- 
tive verbs may generally be classed and defined 
in the following manner : 

(a) They express : to be or to have that, which 
is signified by the noun from which they are derived 

— ad), £o>, evb), (aZ,b), i£w), e, g. y^oXfj, choler, yoXau) 

(to have choler), to be angry. — /co/^, hair, Kofxaw, to 
have hair, to be covered with hair. — roAp?, boldness, 
to\jlicl(jj (to have boldness), to be bold. — Koipavoq, a 
lord, Koipaveit), to be lord, to lord, govern. — <j>i\og, a 
friend, §i\kw (to be a friend), to love. — ttAoutoc, 
riches, ttAoutew, (to have riches), to be rich. — (povcvg, 
a murderer, cpovtmo, to be a murderer, to murder. — 
KoKai, a flatterer, KoXaicevu, to flatter. —-a\r}%g, true, 
aXySeva), to be true. — In verbs in a£w and i£o> this 
signification at least obtains when they are de- 
rived from proper names, e. g. Aw<noc, Doric, 
^lopiaCa) or Sujpilb), to be Doric, (in language, dispo- 

z 2 



340 APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. 

sition and mode of life).— EAXt?v, a Greek, tXXrj- 
viluv, to be Grecian, 

(b) To make something into that or to furnish 
something with that, which is signified by the noun 

—ooj, [£(0, vvb) (aivai), e. g. <$ov\og, a slave, $ov\6a), 

to make into a slave. — &JXoc, manifest, known, $r}\6u), 
to make manifest, known.— ypvaog, gold, x? v ™<*> 0° 

furnish with gold), to gild.—alpa, blood, a\fiaril<ia 9 to 

make bloody.— irXovTog, riches, irXovrifa, to make rich, 
to enrich.' — Kaivog, new, Kaivow, to make new, to re- 
new.— 7]$vq, sweet, r)$vv(A), to make sweet, to sweeten. — 
fiapvQ, heavy, fiapvvb), to make heavy, to load. — koIXoq, 
hollow, KoiXalvio, to make hollow, to excavate. 

Note. These significations cannot all be invariably retained but 
are subject to many changes, as is already evident from the verbs 
in /£w, which have been adduced as belonging to both classes. 
The rules for verbs in tw, evw and ow obtain the most generally* 



§91. 
SUBSTANTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS. 

The number of substantives derived from verbs 
is too great to admit of a complete enumeration 
of their kinds and an accurate definition with re- 
spect to their sense. Only the most important 
and common of them, therefore, follow here. 

(1) From the root of verbs, with the terminations 
evg, Tw, rr\p and Tojp for the masculine, and ua or 
iggcij rig, THpa or Tpm or Tpig for the feminine, sub- 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 341 

stantives are formed, which all transfer the idea, 
implied in the verb, to a person, e.g. ypafyzvg, a writer 

(ypa(j>uv).—a%\r}Trig, a wrestler (aSAav). — av\r)Tr)q, 
fem. av\t)Tpig, a flute-player (auXav). — juaS^rric, /j.a%- 

rpiQ, a scholar (jtaSeiv). — awrrjp, awrapa, a preserver 
(<raoa>). — prjTup, an orator, (pew, I speak.) 

(2) By annexing the termination aig substan- 
tives are formed from verbs, which represent the 
idea of the verb as an acting, operating, on the con- 
trary, by annexing the termination pa, are formed 
those which express the production of an action, 
e. g. 7rpa£iQ, action, irpayjua, a deed, circumstance 

(irpaoro-fc)).' — Troirjaig, poetical composition s -rroirif.ia, a 

poem (iroiib)). — /jLipriGiQ, imitation, (ilfinpa, the work 
produced by imitation {p,i\iko\xai). 

(3) Moreover many substantives are formed 
from verbs by means of the terminations a, rj, og, 
fit] and /uoc, which mostly contain the idea of the verb 
as an abstract, e. g. xapa, joy, (yalpta). SiSayfi, in- 
struction (SiSdcKU)). $e<J[a6q, a Chain (c)£w). \6yog, 

speech, (Xt'yw). yvwfiti, knowledge (yivwovcw). odvp^og, 
lamentation (oSvpopai.) 



§92. 

SUBSTANTIVES DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES. 

All substantives derived from adjectives express 
the idea of the adjective ms an abstract, like English 
substantives in ness, ty, hide, &c. and are formed 
by affixing the terminations w (ua i ma), tni (gen. 



342 APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. 

tt)toq), (twti and og (neuter and of the third declen- 
sion) to the root of the adjective ; e. g. <jo*p6q, 
wise, aofjiia, wisdom, §uX6q, timid, SeiXia, timidity, 

aXrjOriQ, true, aXrfitia, truth, avovq, senseless, avoia, 

senselessness, rpayyg, rough, rpa^vrr/c, roughness, 

SiKdioq, Just, SiKcuocrvvr), Justice, rayvc, SWlft, rayoq^ 

swiftness. 



% 93. 

THE MOST USUAL TERMINATIONS OF DERIVA- 
TIVE ADJECTIVES. 

(1) The terminations ioq and iKoq, corresponding 
to the English ly and ish, and annexed only to 
nouns,, always signify that something belongs to the 
noun, relates to it, proceeds from it ; e, g. </>i'Aoc, ci 
friend, <j>iXioq and (j>iXii<6q, friendly, irorafxoq, a river, 

TTorafxiog, that is in the river, belongs to the river, 
KaSapoq, clean, KdSdpioq, cleanly. 

Hereto belong also the terminations dioq, uoq, 
oioq and woq, of which uoq in particular is of fre- 
quent occurrence, all personal adjectives being- 
formed by means of the same ; e. g. 'O^paoc, Ho- 
meric, Uv%y6pdioq, Pythagorean, &c. so also, a^Spw- 
Truoq, human, ywdiKuoq, of women. 

(2) The terminations wq and Xvoq, serve to de- 
note the material of which something consists ; e. g. 
yjpvazoqi golden, yaXKEoq, brazen, apyvpzoq, silver, 
ZvXivoq, wooden, X'&ivoq, stone. 

(3) Terminations poq, spoq, ypoq, dXeoq, sic, (o«c) 
and wStjc.— Most adjectives with these termina- 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 343 

tions denote a state of fulness or an abundance and 
often agree with the English adjectives in y, ous 
or ful; e. g. oiKTpoq, piteous, <j>%vep6q, envious, 

\v7TYipog, sorrowful, SapaaXeoq, Courageous, yapiuq, 

graceful, v\wq, woody, irvpouq, full of fire, fiery, 
ai/iiaTw§Yis, bloody, xfjaupwSriQ, sandy,— Yet many in 
dlr\q express also a resemblance ; e. g, avSpwSrjq, 
manlike, manly, ywaiKoj^q, womanlike, womanly, 
effeminate, 

(4) The termination ifioq, annexed only to 
verbal roots, denotes usefulness, aptitude; e. g. 
yjpYiGifJLoq, useful, kZw^ifxoq, eatable, noriiioq, potable, 
"SavaGifioq, deadly, 

(5) The terminations r6q, rkoq, see § 81. 



§ 94. 

TERMINATIONS FOR FORMING PARTICULAR 
KINDS OF WORDS. 

1. Substantives and Adjectives. 

(a) Diminutives are formed by the Greeks with 
the terminations iov, Siov, idwv, i^evq, apiov, vWiov, 
vXXiq, ig, iGKoq, tffkij, &c. e. g. TrcuStov, a little boy, 
GTE<pavi<jKoq, a little crown, vmvlaKn, a little girl, 
iy%v§iov, a little fish, invaKt^iov, a tablet, aen^vq, an 
eaglet (only used of young animals), iraidapiov, a 
baby. 

Note. Concerning the accentuation of diminutives ending in 
ov and og, see § 33, 2. Exception c. page 100. Besides it must 
be observed that those terminating in evq, lq and vXXiq, are oxy- 
tone ; e. g, v^aic (from vijcroQ, an island), ckavSvWls (from 
aKaySa, a thorn), 

3 



344 APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. 

(b) Amplificatives are formed with the termina- 
tions wv and a£, e.g. yaarpwv, a big-bellied person, 
KzfyaXtuv, a thick-head, irXovra^, stony. 

(c) As nouns of nations are used partly substan- 
tives with the terminations evq, irrjq, iarr]q, cwttjc, 

(fern. ig), e.g. Awpievq, a Dorian, Meyapzvq (of Me- 
gar a), ' AjSSijpmje (ofAbdera), lirapnaT^q, 1iKsXi£}Tr\q, 
partly adjectives with the terminations ioq, aioq, 

avoq, ivoq, &C., e. g. KopivOioq, 'A%valoq, ' A<jiavoq s 
Bv£avriVoc. 

(d) Patronymics have the terminations Syq, idns, 

adtjq, ladyq, e. g. 'AAo/aSrjc, (from 'AXtvaq), KpOv'&rtq, 
ArpsiSriQ, TeXajuuoviaSriq, UrfXeiSnq, Ur{Xr}ia^r}q. — The 

feminines have the terminations ic, «c, iovn, ivr\,e. g. 

TavraXiq (daughter of Tantalus), Ivayiq, OwTiaq, 
AKpiaitovt}, ASpaaTivrf. 

2. Verbs. 

(a) Desideratives , which express a wish, a desire, 
are mostly formed from the future of other verbs 
by means of the termination uio, e. g. yeXavuw, I 

Should like to laugh, (yzXacrw from ytXau)), wo\£p.r)<jU(t), 

I have a desire for war, (iroX^riaw from voXe^a)).— 
Others of this kind are formed from substantives 
with the termination ww, e. g. KXavmaw, I have a 
desire to weep (KXavaiq), arparr\yia^, I am desirous of 
being a general (arparnyoq). 

(b) Frequentatives, which denote the frequent 
repetition of one and the same action, are formed 
from simple verbs by means of the terminations, 
aid), i£<*>, via) ; e. g. GTzvdlu) (<tt£vw), to groayi much, 
a'trilio (cutcw) to ask often, beg, zpirvlu (spirt*)), to creep 
continually. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 345 

(c) Inchoatives, which indicate the beginning of 
an action or state, have all the termination gkw ; 
e. g. [x&vctkio, I intoxicate (begin to make drunk), 
7)(3d<jKix), I become marriageable. 



§ 95. 
FORMATION OF NEW WORDS BY COMPOSITION. 

1. To express compound ideas the Greeks 
unite two or more words into one. Such com- 
pounded forms are found in Greek in considerable 
number and by frequently joining two or three 
prepositions to the same word, the language ac- 
quires an accuracy and refinement of expression, 
which cannot be rendered in any other without 
prolixity and circumlocution ; e. g. vir-iK-juvyw, I 

fly secretly away from a 'place, 7T£>o-Kara-Aa/uj3ava>, 
I take possession of beforehand. 

2. If in combining several words together no 
harshness or dissonance arises, each individual 
member of the compound retains its proper form, 
or only undergoes the usual changes, which are 
rendered necessary by the nature of the concur- 
ring letters ; e. g. iroXi-^ayoq, much-eating. iraXai- 
(jhitoq, spoken long ago, -ira^opog, (jav and (pspu)), 

all-producing, fruitful, vavjiayla, a sea-fight, ey-Ka\eoj 

Qv), I call on. 

3. In general however the root of the first 
member of the compound receives an accession : 
o, s, a, m, e. g< 7raiS-o-rptj3nc, one that educates chiU 



346 APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. 

dren, lyOv-o-moX^. a fish-monger, aw^aT-o-^vXa'i, a 
body-guard, §aK-k-%fioq (from ZAkv*), root cW), 
heart-gnawing, tz\z-g-$o{joq, bringing to an end, 
\v-Gi-f±z\yiQ, limb-relaxing, irav-ai-yokoq, rage-ap- 
peasing. 

Note 1 . The o is used for connection, when the first member 
of the compound is a noun, s and o-i, when it is a verb, as appears 
from the adduced examples. 

4. As occurring only in composition must be 
observed the particle <W, which is always an- 
nexed unchanged and expresses adversity or diffi- 
culty (the English mis or an), and the a privative, 
which, when the word to which it is attached 
begins with a vowel, takes an additional v and 
denotes negation or privation ; e. g. Zwrvyfiv, to 
have an adverse fate, Svo-apecrroe, dissatisfied, <W- 

fy'lTtirog, difficult to be SOUght, airaiq^ childless, atcatcoq, 

harmless, avainoq, innocent. 

Note 2. In general the accent of the compound differs from 
that of the simple word, since the rule here obtains, that gene- 
rally the accent recedes as far towards the beginning of the word 
as the nature of the final syllable permits ; e. g* gvvo^oq (from 
oSoq), airaig (from tvoiq). Compound adjectives, concerning 
which the necessary rules are given above, page 147 to 151, re- 
quire particular attention in respect to accentuation. 



END OF THE ETYMOLOGY, 



SECOND PART. 



SYNTAX. 



Explanation of the Idea and Exposition of the 
Contents. 



§ 96. 

1. Syntax (o-uvra&c) teaches the application of 
words whose formation has been learnt previously, 
and shews how the same must be combined to- 
gether among themselves and as members of a 
proposition. 

2. Hence it prescribes rules on the use of all 
the parts of speech, and, proceeding from the 
easier to the more difficult, treats : (1) Of the 
noun, partly by itself and partly in combination 
with other nominal forms (article, adjective, pro- 
noun, participle.) (2) The noun in combination 
with a verb, and with other words upon which it 
appears as dependent. (3) The verb in all its 
parts. (4) The use of the participle and of the 
cases absolute. (5) The application of particles 
or lesser parts of speech. 

Note. Strictly considered, the whole contents of the syntax 
ought to be divided into two principal sections, in the first of 
which should be explained the combination of single ideas among 



348 SYNTAX, 

themselves, and in the second, the union of single ideas into pro- 
positions. In a school-book, however, comprehensiveness and 
brevity of exposition do not appear to be purchased too dearly 
by the sacrifice of the purely scientific construction, and hence 
we have relinquished the prescribed philosophic course, and have 
adopted the above-named five divisions, under which every thing 
to be investigated respecting the usages of the Greek language, 
can be conveniently arranged. 



CHAPTER I. 



Nouns by themselves, and in Combination with other 
Nominal Forms. 



§ 97. 

PRELIMINARY REMARK., 

Although the article, like the adjective and 
pronouns, can appear only in combination with 
a noun, and consequently the rules respecting its 
use must be incorporated with the doctrine on 
the combination of the subject with its accessory 
definitions, yet in Greek so many peculiarities 
are to be observed in these kinds of words, that 
it is requisite, towards their accurate and com- 
plete discussion, to treat of them in separate sec- 
tions previously to that doctrine, and in the na- 
ture, as it were, of an introduction to the same. 



OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 349 

§ 98. 
OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 

1. A noun in and by itself denotes an object or 
idea without further relation or accessory defi- 
nition. But if it is to indicate a definite indivi- 
dual out of a general species, the article is added, 
namely, the definite, 6, rj, to, when the object is 
conceived as known and in a certain condition, 
the indefinite, rig, rl, when it is assigned generally 
as an individual without distinct peculiarities ; 
e. g. Iwov, animal (every being of that kind), ro 
twov, the animal, (a definite individual, conceived 
with certain characteristics), £wdv n, an animal 
(an individual being out of the species of animals 
conceived without nearer characteristics). 

Elucidation. — o, rj, to, is properly a demon- 
strative pronoun, and is frequently used as such 
in the elder language and with the poets. Hence 
when it is joined to a noun it always distinguishes 
one object from another, and gives it a particular 
prominence, representing the object as known or 
expected. In this still more demonstrative signi- 
fication the article is always used in the elder 
language, e. g. by Homer. Its use in the place of 
a mere article without the emphasis of a demon- 
strative, is chiefly confined to prose, being much 
less frequent with the poets. 

2. (3) In simple substantives the definite ar- 
ticle stands before, the indefinite after ; but if the 



350 SYNTAX. 

substantive is accompanied by accessory defini- 
tions, these are either inserted between the article 
and substantive, or placed after the substantive 
with the repetition of the article. The indefinite 
article stands between the substantive and the 
adjective belonging to it. 

To TT)Q ap£TT}g KaWoQ. T) ITpOg TaXoLTag f^ayr), OX 7] 

jtia^ri i) 7rpog TaXarag. — cwpaica tt)v gt)v ^vyaTtpa, or 
rr)v ~jvya.T£pa ttjv crr/v. — iravTog kiraivov a^iog (jtatverai o 
<j>iXog o to. ayaSa GVfnrpaTTfsJV Kat, twv Trovrjpidjv airoTpk- 
7ro)v. — rag yjdovag Srjpeve Tag juera $6%r}g, — oyirXiog rig 
av^!poJ7rog, or av^pioirog Tig Gy^erXiog. 

3. When a substantive is used for the designa- 
tion of a general specific idea, the Greeks add the 
article only in those cases where the idea is to be 
rendered emphatically prominent either in and 
by itself or in opposition to another ; the article 
is else wanting ; e. g. ttoXs^oc ovk iariv avzv kivSvvwv, 
war is not free from dangers. — 6 iroXtfxog ovk avzv 
Kivdvvkjv, 7] Sc apjivi] aKLvSwog (the article on account 
of the opposition of war and peace.) 

(4) In proper names the article stands in Greek 
either (a) as a demonstrative, which is almost in- 
variably the case with Homer, or (b) to indicate 
that the object is known generally or already 
mentioned in the preceding. But the article 
must always be omitted before a proper name, 
when an additional substantive with the article 
is subjoined to the same for nearer definition. 

OvvtKa tov Xpvariv r)Ti(JL7](i apY}Tr)pa ATpaSrje, (that 

Chryses, the known).— -i) 8' vrm to irp\v jutv ovatWo 



OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 351 

tpyov aeiKEg &a K\vTaifxvr}<rrpr} (she, Clytemnestra). — 
6 Kupoe 7roXXa iSvri KaTzaTptyciTo (the celebrated 

Cyrus.) — al /u£*ytcrrat Tr)g 'EXXaSoe ttoXeic r)<Jav r) 

^TrapTti /cat al 'A^vai (the known Sparta and 

Athens). — Kvpog, o tljv Uepawv fiaaiXzvg. — Qr)fiai, 
at ev Botama. 

5. Every expression, which does not merely 
indicate an object generally but represents it as 
existing in a particular state or in a peculiar rela- 
tion, is accompanied in Greek by the definite ar- 
ticle. 

Tov yzpovra aiSuaSai y^pr) (one ought to reverence 
an old man). — pr) <$pa tovq r^v^/corac kclkioq (treat 

not the dead with evil). — tCov tov fiiov ayaSuv ju£T£- 

yzw Set Kal tov SovXov (even a slave, &c.) 

6. (§ 99). An adjective receives the article 
when it is to be formed into a substantive. This 
occurs most frequently in the neuter of the ad- 
jective, wherein it must be observed, that the 
Greeks make use of the neuter plural to designate 
either a whole class of objects, or individual rela- 
tions and conditions of an object, or a whole as 
far as it is conceived to be composed of individual 
parts, but the neuter singular, on the contrary, 
when a whole in and by itself or an abstract idea 
is to be assigned. 

O go(j>6q povoq ttXovgioq (tart). — to KaXov Srjpeue. — 

TtOV KaK(t)V 7rX£lW £(7Tt KCITO. TOV |3tOV, 7J TWV CLya%U)V. TO 

Iv avSpw7roic KaKov (the evil, wickedness of men.) — 
to, kv av%>w7roic fca/ca (the ills, sufferings in the 
world). 



352 SYNTAX. 

7. (4)* The article in Greek appears alone, 
that is without a subjoined substantive, in the 
following cases : (a) When a substantive already- 
named would have to be repeated ; (b) when the 
idea of the substantive assigns a general relation 
or a reference easy to be supplied from the con- 
text. Such substantives are : condition, situation, 
affairs, relations, circumstances, events (irpayp.ara), 
things, goods, property (^rj/uara) ? house, home, 
country (oikoq, yuga), men, persons, relatives, 
friends, dependents, companions, subjects (avSpw- 
ttoi); son, daughter (ylog, rralg, %yarrjp); road 

(o£>oc)j day, time (y/utpa, y^povog). 

Merpia rj 0£w SovXeia, ajiizrpog $£ 7} rotg av^puiroig. — - 

01 7ToX£jLtlOt KCU TY\V TlflETZpClV §VVClfAlV (jtofSoVVTCtl, Kdl rr\V 

rh)v GVfXjjLa^tov . — AXt£av(!)pog, o <J>iXi7T7rov (ylog), Kapra 
£7roX£^ui7(7£. — FjpprjQ, o M.alag (ylog), rr\g ' ArXavrog (3v- 
yarpog), Sta/covarat rolg %zolg. — zKaarog rig aTro^rj^rjaag 
<j>ofiurai irepl rwv ot/cot (jrpayp.anov), — K\y)povop.og rwv 
warpwwv (yjpi)ixarii)v),- — ra y]fxkrzpa (y^pfifxara) fxiKpa 
loriv. — Trop£V£<j%ai tig rriv ' AXe^av^pov (yyypav)*' — ikvai 
ug tov kraipov (oikov). — o JLvpog rovg vty eavrio (avSjOw- 
7rovg) warrep kavrov naiSag hrifia,—o Kvpog npouov rrjv 
km Baj3uXwvoc (o§6v) /carter psxparo rovg <&pvyag. ry 
eiriovay OV ry e^rjg (i^uijOa.) — ol au<j>t riva, ot irspi riva, 

ol avv nvi 9 ot juera rivog, the surrounding compa- 
nions, dependents, friends^ assistants of any one. 
— to. irapa nvog, the accounts, commands, gifts 
of one. — ra 7rp6g riva, the relations towards one. — 
ra 7T£ot n or ra Kara ft, the circumstances, events 
of a thing.— r« rfc aptrrig, the nature of virtue, 
virtue in its whole compass;— re* r^g rvyyg, the 
course of fortune. 



OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 353 

Note 1. This last mentioned mode of expression is not unfre- 
quently used in Greek as an emphatical paraphrase of a simple 
substantive ; e. g. ol 7repl tov &r)fioa$EVT], Demosthenes with his 
party. — ot xepl tov $i\nnroi>, Philip and his power. — rd tov xo- 
Xd/jLov, war and its concomitants. 

8. The article is also added, when the substan- 
tive is accompanied by a pronoun, in the follow- 
ing cases : 

(a) It is used with the demonstratives ovtoq 
and zkuvoq, in which case the pronoun either pre- 
cedes the article or follows the substantive ; e. g. 
ovtoq o avrjp or o avrjp ovtoq (not o ouroc avr/p). — De- 
monstratives from the correlative series (§ 59) can 
also be placed in the middle between the article 
and substantive ; e. g. towvtoq o aviip, or o toiovtoq 

avrip. — Toaavrri rj SvvapiQ, 01' t) roaavTr) ZvvafiiQ, 

(b) In possessive pronouns the addition of the 
article, though not necessary, is however usual, 
the possessive being placed in the middle between 
the article and substantive ; ,e* g> o goq SovXoq 
airtdpa. — tjuoc vloQ (a son of mine). — o z/j.6q v16q (my 
son, the definite, who is already known from the 
context, or my only son). 

(c) In 7rac, Tra<ja, 7rav the use of the article is 
different according to the difference of significa- 
tion : in the signif. every it generally stands with- 
out the article, and even in the plural, where it 
signifies all, the article enters only when the dis- 
course is of definite and known objects ; in the 
signification ivhole it takes the article and assumes 
the position of an adjective* 

Ei eyu) weXot/ii apyjEiv, ttclvtzq av Ijjlol ttu^olvto. — ~ 
Kuooc cTi iraiQ wv, orz kirai^vero 6vv tqiq aWoiq Trcutxf, 

A a 



354 SYNTAX. 

iravTtov iravTa (1) KpaTiffTog kvofxit^ro* — ffroanwrcu irav- 
reg (all, who are soldiers), rravTsg oi ffroariwrai (all 

the soldiers, already spoken of), ol cyroariwrtu 

iravreg or 01 iravTtg arpariiorai (the whole mass of 

soldiers). 

9. (6). Adverbial expressions become adjec- 
tives by the accession of the article, and, when a 
substantive is omitted (see above, 7), supply the 
place of substantives. 

Oi iraXat (rofyoL — to. avo) Tr)g h!iTvr\g yjjjpia. — o p,£Ta%v 
^povog.— 01 7r\rjmov av6pii)TToi.- — al TreXag Kwtxai. — r) 
avpiov (ri/utipajy — oi iraXai (avSocuTroi)." — to or) p,Epov jjieXei 

flOl. 

10. (5). The article to is joined also to the in- 
finitive, to form it into a substantive idea, partly 
where the infinitive occurs independently either 
alone or with accessory definitions, partly and 
principally where it completes an impersonal 
proposition to which with to it appears as the 
subject. Generally the article to is joined to 
every word, and even to whole propositions, 
which are to be adduced as independent ideas. 

To 7rpaTTiiv, — to KaXwg Aeysiv. — to EXXac (2).' — to 
av$pa ap^ovTa ttckjiv ap,a yjnXziraivziv Toig ap^Ofievoig 
tovto (3) kfxoi cWsi fitya afiapTrj/uia uvai. — to fxev dXXiov 
/carajiif/i^)£(7^ai pa^iov (jeoti), to Se clvtov p.r) 7repiireo£ip 



(1) In all things. — (2) The word Hellas ; on the contrary, // 
'EXXae, the country of that name.— (3) tovto inserted only as an 
emphatic reference to to — yakeTraivuv, which words are to be 
considered as together forming one substantive, and the sub- 
ject to the proposition cokeI a/jLapTfjfxa elvai. 



OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 355 

i^oyw yaXzirurarov. — ov$lv Sav/macrrov to o/jliXuv toiq 
7rovrjpo7g rovg rrovriaovg. — sav tovto fisfiauog vTrap^rf, rore 
Kai irspl tov riva Tifjuoprjatrai Tig zkuvov rporrov k^Larai 

OK07TUV (1). 

10. (7). Lastly, in the eommon language the 
article appears also as a pronoun in combination 
with ph and & in distributions and distinctions : 
o jU£v—-o §g, this— that; the one— the other. 

Ol jutv eg (j>vyrjv erpajrovro, oi $£ tfiuvav. — nov 
arparuoruv oi ju £ v tKvfitvov, ol § c ettivov, ot <8 £ 
f yujuva^ovro. — T O V £ jU £ v cinnrEij tou? o £/coXo^£v. 



§ 99. (100.) 
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 

1. The definite pronoun avrog, avrfi, avro, is 

used in a threefold sense : (a) when it is joined to 
personal pronouns of the two first persons or to 
the third person of a verb, or is combined with a 
noun, it signifies self, and stands either before the 
article or after both the article and noun, (b) In 
combination with the article, o avrog, it signifies : 
the same, the very same, (c) If its oblique cases 



(1) If we have made sure of this, it will then be possible also 
to consider in what manner one may punish him ; where the 
whole proposition riva rpoirov TijKopijarerai rig etcelvoy is formed 
as it were into a single substantive idea by the addition of the 
article rov, 

a a 2 



356 SYNTAX. 

are used in reference to a preceding noun, they 
are to be rendered, in English, by : him, to him, 
her, to her, it, &c. 

O TraTijp av to g ecjioj3ri%. — jiiaXXov tovto (pofiov/mai 
rj tov Xavarov avr 6 v. — a v t o g o c&A^oc irvipk jj,e. 
— a v r o g eyr].— £yw a v r o g tKAavaa. — a v r <w avvy)V. 
- — a v r o v ^TTuaa tovto ttoiziv. — Kivog fxlv £o\'o\*£e tov 
HpaicXta Kixapu)$uv. HpaicXrig cte opyia^leig airkKTUvzv 
avTO v.—yyvrj Tig zi\\tv ipviv, Ka% Ikcigty\v rjfxspav (Lou 
a v t ij TiKTOVGav. — i()(i)Ka avT(o to (3if5Xiov. — to 
av t o ywpiov saXcu (1). — ol vtto t rig av t rj g pijTpog 
Tpa(f>£VT£g, Kai ev tij a v t ij oiKia av^SlavTsg, Kai vtfo 
tCjv av t w v yovicjv ayaTra^ievoi, Kai tt\v avTriv j.ir\Tkpa 
Kai tov avTov iraTtpa wpocrayopzvovTzg, ttwc ov irav- 

TWV OVTOl OlKUOTCtTOl \ — 01 TltpGai Kai a\)TOl (2) eg 

ixayjiv aTa£ ) avTO.'-—aXXa Kai rj/uug avTOi ToXfirjcTo/xev. 

Note 1 . In the signification of the oblique cases of avrog ad- 
duced under c, Homer generally andthe other poets frequently 
use the requisite cases of the third personal pronoun. Fre- 
quently also no pronoun is found for the designation of a re- 
ference so near and so easy to be understood from the context. 

Aae prr)v ovkItl cpaal ttoXiv^e (3) ep^ccr^, aXX d7rdv£v$£r ett 
dypov Tn'ifiara -KaayEiVy ypr\i (4) aw djui(pL7r6\o), ij ol (for abrujy 
fipioaiv re Ttoffiv re TrapriSel (5), evr av jitv (for avTov) icd/iarog 
Kara yvla \d{3rj<jip — rroXkioP dv^pu)irb)v 'ihev aorea, teal voov (sciL 
avruiv) eyrco. 

2. Instead of the oblique cases of avTog, those 
of LavTov are used, when the expressions : him, to 



(1) dXlcnco/jiai, see § 84.— (2) Properly themselves also, and as 
this always presupposes another, who has done the same, it can 
be conveniently translated by likewise. — (3) Epic for eg 7r6Xtr.—r- 
(4) From ypavg, see § 43. Note 5.— (5) Epic for Trapar'tdrjffi, 



OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 357 

kirn, to her, himself, herself, &c. refer to the prin- 
cipal subject of the proposition. 

'O KlfpOQ TToWlOV &V10V TjpSsV, OU^' £ CI V T W OJLlOy\u)T- 
TU)V OVTbJV, Ol)T£ uW^XolQ' KCll OfAUJQ Tj^VVrj^Y] k(jHK&aftai JLLEV 

km TOdaurrjv yrjv rw cup' e av r o v (pojBto, wgt£ KarcnrXri- 
£ai itavraq, Kal fi^deva £my£ipuv av r 10' £§vvr}%r) ^£ £7Tt- 
XvfJiLav £/ii(3a\uv togcivtiiv tov iravrag a v r 10 yapiZfrGZai, 
wore ael ry a v r o v yvujjuy a^iovv Kvfiepvaazai. — o Tvpav- 

VOg VOflltfil TOVQ 7To\'LTCtLJ VTTT}p£T£lV £ CIV T W. TlGGCl(p£pVY}q 

SiafiaWu tov JLvpov irpog tov ac)$X<£ov, wg awipovXtvoi 

avrw. 

3. Possessive pronouns are used in Greek much 
more rarely than in English. For in all cases 
where things which belong to different persons 
are not expressly contrasted with each other, or 
otherwise assigned with possessive definitions, no 
possessive is joined in Greek to the substantive. 
Moreover the genitive of personal pronouns is 
frequently used for possessives. We must observe 
therein, that instead of possessives of the third 
person the genitive of avrog is adopted, inter- 
changeably with the reflexive lavrov, which occurs 
in those cases where the possessive assigns a pro- 
perty of the principal subject. 

O g o g SovXog or o gov SovXog. — v (j, £ r £ p o i ot 
iraictg or ol 7rai§zg v (jl uj v. — fj.rj o'lov, to a 6 v fxlv bfxfia 
cvvaazai km iroWa gtciSici h^ucvuc&ai, tov §£ tov Sfou 
ofyxaXfiov advvaTOv uvai ajxa wdvTa opav. — w yc&tk, KciTa- 

0, w \f\ »»v\\ - a Ol ' 

fjiaze, oTi Kai o aog vovg evcjjv to g o v G(i)jua, oirwg pov- 
Xztcii, juera^£t^i^£rat. — o mxTr\p ckeXeucte pz tcivtcl woulv. 



358 SYNTAX. 

- — ot yovsiq OTEpyovai to, tzkvci. — iravrzq aycnrwcri tovq 

fplXoVQ. O ZfUC TT]V A%t]VaV tfyVGZV SK Tt)c EOVTOU 

KtfaXrjQ. — g^oXclgtikoc; awoftov ret /3tj3Xia avrov hiri- 
Trpa(7/C£. — o\I>pa ttXugtci Xafiiov o Kvpoc ravra navra roie 
tpiXoig dizdi^ov, Kai ocra tlo ai'ofjiaTi avrov kogjaov 
irkfxiroi Tig, tcai tteoi tovtwv Xiytiv avrov sfyaaav, on to 
julv € av t ov awfia ovk av Svvairo tovtoiq iraai /coffurjerae) 
{piXovg 3s KaXhjg /C£/cog^i?7U£vovc ME-yicrrov /cocruov avSpt 

VOfUt'Coi. 

Note 2. Instead of the genitive of personal pronouns the 
dative also is used for possessives, in the elder language gene- 
rally, by the poets of all periods frequently, and by the Attic 
prose writers chiefly in tyiXog, E-%$p6g, TroXe/JLiog, avfXfjLa^og and 
similar adjectives formed into substantives. 

MtfripL fioi fiprjffriipeg e7re\paov ovk e^eXovctt], — oarffe ()£ ot 

Ttvpl XafXTTETOLOVTL k'iKTT}V (l). XeIKTCTETE ydp TOyE TTCIVTEQ, 6 jlOL 

yipag IpyETai aXXr). — ol ij jj.T v Gv^aypL a(biKvovvrai iroXXrj rfj 
Svvd/JLEi. — ov irdvTag tovq ovk evvovq kySpovg a o t t)e! vofii^Etv. 
Kupog fXEv diri^avE fjta^6/.iEvog to) acJtX^' 'Apra7ra'rr/c $£, 6 tvmt- 
TOTaTog av t m tlov aKYjiTTOvyjav •S'fpaVw^, Xeyercu, E7r£i$rj Eifie 

TTETTTUKOTO. KvpOV, KaTaTT7]C{]<Tag ClVo TOV 17T7T0V TtEpUKEOELV CLVTaJ '. 

Note 3. The reflexive pronoun of the third person occurs fre- 
quently in reference to the first and second person, when the 
correct reference is evident from the context. 

Etra ToXfi{](TEig Tolg 6(p$aXfio~ig to7q eclvtov (for ffeavrov) tov 
vibv dTro$vr)(TKovT avTTOfX£~ivai ', — ovtoj TraiCEVEig rovg eclvtov (for 
oeclvtov) (j)iXovg. — ovce ti)v eclvtov (for a eclvtov) (jv yE y^vyjyy 
vpq,g y i) tov aiofjiCLTOQ Kvpia EGTIV. 

4. Personal pronouns are joined in the nomi- 
native to a verb, only when they possess a par- 
ticular emphasis, and therefore chiefly when 
one person is opposed to another. In Homer 



(1) See page 287 under e'lkoj. 



OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 359 

they frequently occur without possessing any 
particular emphasis. 

E y to fxkv evtyaaivofjiaig g v ce cia 7t£vZovq aytig rov 
piov.*—Gv &£ a/u^orkpov rwv ttXugtov a^iojv tetv^kloq (1), 
ovk o'lel gov Scout; e7rijj.E\uG^!ai ; — ov yap kyu> Tpwtuv svek 
7]\v$ov (2) aiyjiY\T dd)v (3) Sfupo fxayj\GOfX£Vog. — r)X$ov 
l*ya> iravGovGa to gov fuiivog ovpavoSzv. (In the two 

last examples, adduced from Homer, the pronoun 
evidently stands without particular emphasis). 

5. The indefinite pronoun ng frequently ex- 
presses in general our English one, or every one. 

Tloi r £ g rpexpErai ; — -\sysTU) rig irepi avTOV tovtov, 
y yiyvMGKti. — Kai r i g oiKiav avaTrXacracrS'w,— -avSpwirov 
civai&GTEpov ovk av t i g tvpoi. 

6. Relative pronouns are regulated in respect 
to gender and number by the noun, to which they 
refer, but in respect to case by the verb of the 
proposition, to which they belong. 

0\)TOg £GTIV O aVT]p, O V £lO*£g.——fltT£<$(x)K£V f)fUV TTaVTWV, 

o g a 7rapr)v. — <pi\ov ovk £%to, wtivi ttigt£vgcii av 
^vyalfxriv. 

7. Frequently however the noun, to which a 
relative refers, is omitted in the antecedent pro- 
position and joined to the relative in the same 
case with it. This construction is called transpo- 
sition in the relative. Also the relative proposition 

(1) To whom both the noble advantages have been granted. — > 
(2) Epic for 7i\dov.— (3) Epic for aixM T< **v° 

2 



360 SYNTAX. 

must often be placed before the demonstrative, 
namely when it contains the more important 
idea. 

OvTog IffTiv, ov ti^ec; avSpa. — ovk zyw, mtivi 
iTKTTtvaai av §vvalfxr\v <j> i A to. — o v av yvwai Svvajuzvov 
jutv yapiv aTro(!>i$avai, jultj arro^'i^ovTa §c, Ko\a£ovcn Kal 
tovtov icryvpiog. 

8. (§ 127. 3—6). A peculiar construction in the 
use of the Greek relative consists in what is 
termed attraction. Thus when a relative should 
stand in the accusative on account of the verb 
connected with it, but the noun to which it refers 
stands in the genitive or dative, and is not accom- 
panied by a demonstrative pronoun, the relative 
is then put in the same case with the noun. 

MeracuStoC avrio rov gitov, o v it e p avrog tyziQ. — * 
tv TrpoGcpiptTdi roig fyiXoic, o i c £ X a * — Xpwpara avv T0L ^ 
Srja-aupoic, oig o 7rar?)o KartXiirtv, \ariv, ug apyvpiov 
AoyiGZEvra, TaXavra tt\uio twv tokj^iXkov.- — avri riov 
TTEvrriKovra ra\avT(s)v } w v ztyzpzg ^aajiiov, SiTrAatna Kwa£;a- 
pei airo^og. 

9. This attraction of the relative occurs the 
most frequently, when it refers to demonstrative 
pronouns which stand unaccompanied by a sub- 
stantive for the designation of general ideas. In 
this case the demonstrative pronoun is usually 
omitted, although perspicuity and energy fre- 
quently render it necessary to be retained, espe- 
cially when the relative proposition precedes the 
demonstrative. Transposition in the relative also* 



OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 361 

of which mention has been made above (7), is not 
unusual in attraction. 

Ovketi eywys ttigtzviji) o i g (1) aTCOKpivofiai. — w v (2) 
iKTrjaa^v ovSlv oi§a, on ov Sifo-oKxap/v. — ov£>£ vvv ri\v 
y Ejurjv ipv^rjv kuparz, aXX o I g (3) c\£7rparT£ro, TOuToig 
avTTjV wg ovaav KaT£(t)(i)paT£, — o i g av oi aAAOi £pyaL,wvrai, 
tovtoiq av \prjGTg. — zl^zTrXayr) scat paGiXevg tt\ e^oow tov 
GTpaTSvuaTog* foYjXwfff $£ rovro ol g (4) rr? VGTeoaia 
£7rparr£.' — fVfXaSov ri w v £j3oi/Xou £i:r£iv j — rwvoe yap 
)(apiv Kal Sevo' (5) £j3ftyi£V, w v oS* s^ayyEXXfrai. — /3ov- 
Xot/xqv av v^ac. /cat rovro /caravofjo-at, on rovrwv, wv vvv 
v^uiv 7rapa/C£X£V0juai, ov&£v ro/c. SouXoic. TrpoGTaTTO), a $ 
v^uag <pr/jiu yprjvai ttoiuv, TavTa Kai avTOg Trupw/uai Travra 
7rparr£iv.- — Kvpoe, TroXXaicig filicovg oivov fjjuiSeug £7T£jU7T£ 
rotg <j>i\oig EiriXiyujv, Seircu gov rovrov £/C7ri£iv Tiifxepov gvv 
olg (6) juaXiora (piXeig, 

Note 4. Examples are more rare, in which attraction takes 
place when the preceding demonstrative is combined with a sub- 
stantive ; e, g. t'nrep ely] ttov r/ ipv^f/ /caS - ' kavTijv ^vvrjS'poiffiJ.evi] 
Kal d7rr)Xkayn£vt] tovtiov tojv KaKtov, (ov (tv vvv Sirj\$£Q, iroXXi] av 
eXttIq eirj Kal KaXr), ujq dXrj^fj iariv a <rv XeysLQ. Plat. Phaedo. 
pag. 64. ed. Heindorf. 

10. A particular kind of attraction obtains with 
the relative olog. Thus when the nominative of 
oloc. should form a separate proposition, combined 
with a form of the verb avai and in reference to 
a preceding demonstrative, not only the demon- 
strative but the verb of the relative proposition 



(1) For tovtoiq, a. — (2) For tovtiov, a. — (3) For tovtoiq, 4, 
although tovtoiq also stands expressly in the subjoined demon- 
strative proposition. — (4) For tovtoiq, a. — (5) Abbreviated for 
tievpo. — (6) For (tvv tovtoiq, ovq. 



362 SYNTAX. 

also is omitted, and the relative placed before 
the noun, to which it refers, in the same case 
with it. 

Ylavv rj^ewg yapiCfivrai o'tio a o! av^pi (for av^pl 
toiovtw, oiog gv a). — yaXeirov r/pov, /ecu olw ye Cjuol a7ro- 
pov (lor Kai airopov tw toiqvtu), oiog eytoye zipi). 

Note 5. The word referred to by the relative is also frequently- 
wanting, either when it can easily be supplied from the context, 
or is the indefinite pronoun rig ; e. g. Svvaio dv evpelv, ora> x a P'~ 
aaio. — eialv 01 Xeyovaiv. — eittote Kvpog Tropevoiro Kai TrXelffrot [xiX- 
\oiev bxjsear-jcu, irpoffKaXwv rovg (f)iXovg eaTrovbaioXoyelro, a>g ^rjXoirj 
ovg rifx<ji. — KoXd&vcri de Kai ovg dv ddiKiog eyKaXovvrag ehpivKioai. 

Note 6. Particular regard must be paid to the use of relatives 
in Greek, where they are placed in combination with tariv in the 
sense ; some person, some, &c. 

HeXo7rovvrjcrioi wKicrav rfjg dXXng 'EWct^oc eariv a yupia. — - 
tarty ovarivag dv$pio7ru)v reSav/iaKag enl aotylq. l—eartv olg ov% 
ovriog edofev (1). So also with relative adverbs ; e. g. eariv ottov 
or ea& oVov, in some place, somewhere.— eart v ore or eVS' ore, 
sometimes.— ovk eaS' oVwe, in no wise. 

Note 7. If by means of a verb, as to be, to call, to believe, to 
think, &c. the relative is combined with another noun in the 
same case, its gender and number also are then determined by 
this noun and not by the preceding one to which it properly 
refers. 

Tldpeartv avroi (bo flog, fjv aldoi KaXovfiev. — top ovpavbv, ovg 
dr) TroXovg KaXovaiv. • — (biXov he, b fieyiarov dyaSbv eivai 
(f>aatv, bpqv e^rj rovg iroXXovg obfo o-triog Krrjaovrat, (f>povri£ovTag. 
— r't dnoXavaatg av Trig dp^rjg, el fxovog dpoipog e'irjg eariag, o v 
ovre baiwrepov \ioplov ev dv$p<o7roig, ovre ijhiov, ovre oiKetorepov 
iartv ovciv, Xenoph. Kyrop. VII. 5. 56. 

Note 8.— When the predicate does not correspond in exterior 
form to the subject (§ 100. 4. c), the gender of the relative is 
determined by the predicate and not by the subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition ; e. g. Skr] ev dv$pw7rotg Truig ov KaXbv, b Trdvra 
i/fiepioKe rd dvSpwiriva, 



(1) To some it appeared not so. 



OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 336 

Note 9. 6'e, of the same origin with ovrog, is also used as a 
demonstrative, in Homer frequently, but with the Attics only at 
the beginning of propositions, kcu og, and this ; and in the formule 
% ft 6g, said he. 

Note 10. When it is required that a personal or demonstrative 
pronoun be added to a causal or intentional particle as a defini- 
tion of the subject for the dependent proposition, the Greeks, in- 
stead of the two, use the relative in immediate reference to the 
subject already contained in the principal proposition. 

Qavjiaarbv rroieig, bg (1) iijmv ob^ey SiSojg. — 07rXa KrcUvrat, 
olg (2) dfJLvyojpraL roitg dEiKovvrag. — eyio vofxl£(o Trpoardrov epyov 
elvat o'iov (3) c>e7, bg (4) av, bpwv rovg (piXovg tL ) a , KaT^fxivovg i ju?) 
£7rtrp£7T?/. Xephon. Hellen. I. 3. 51. 



(1) For on <tv. — (2) For orruyg Tovroig. — (4) For roiovrov otov 
u eivtu, comp. above 10. — (4) For oVwc av avrog or 6 Toiovrog. 



364 SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Noun in combination ivith the Verb and with 
other words upon which it appears as dependent. 



§ 100. (101 and 102). 

COMBINATION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE 
PREDICATE AND COPULA. 

1. When a property is assigned of an object as 
existing in the same, a proposition is formed. 
Hence a proposition consists of three parts : (a) 
an object of which something is declared— $w£~ 

ject; (b) a property which is attributed to the 
object— predicate; (c) a word which indicates that 
the subject and predicate must be conceived as 
combined — copula. 

2. The subject is designated by a substantive 
(or a pronoun, or even an adjective or participle 
combined with the article and supplying the 
place of a substantive) and stands, because it is 
named directly and independently, in the nomina- 
tive. — The predicate as the indication of a pro- 
perty is designated by an adjective (or even a 
participle or substantive in which a property is 
expressed), and the copula by the verb to be, 

(eivat, xnrapyziv, yryveffSeu, (j>vvai). 

3. With the subject, as the most important 



COMBINATION OF SUBJ. WITH PRED. & COP. 365 

part of a proposition, the two other parts must 
agree in external form ; hence the copula stands 
in the same number with the subject, and the 
predicate in the same number and case, and, 
when it is designated by an adjective or partici- 
ple, also in the same gender. 

O K.vpog paaiXevg r\v 7TQ(otoq twv Tlspawv, — to tiov 
Uepawv cSvoc fia^i/uwraTOv Kal av^puoTarov t<j>v. — r) gov 
ZvyaTrip Ka\r) kari Kal aya%rj* — ol av%p<i)iroi ucn %vy)toL 
• — irav to kol\6v eari Kat ayc&ov, — a^Savaroi jxovoi hgiv 
01 &EOL. — KpiTiag iravTOJv rwv kv ry b\iyapyjia fiiaioraroQ 
zykvtro. — Ta Uvprivaia opt} Kara to vxpog vtrapyzi biacpopa 
twv aWiov. 

Notel. (§102.2). These three parts of a proposition do not 
always appear separated, but generally the predicate and copula 
are incorporated together in one verb. This is the case with all 
verbs, except those, which simply include the idea of the 
copula, as elvai, virdpyEtv, yiyvE<r§ai, <pvvai, or contain no 
complete and definite predicate, as the expressions ; to be called 
(icaXeicrSai, EiriKaXeicrSai, TpocrayopEVEaSai, opofxd^EcrSai, Xiyea- 
$ai) ; to be appointed or elected (aipeiffSai, d7rofotKvv(r3 , ai, x £l 9°" 
ToveiaSai, KpiveaSai) : to appear, to be accounted or judged, (cio- 
keIp, tyaiveaSai, koiKEvai, vojJiiZ£(T6ai,v7roXaiJ,fidv£crdai, KpLvEaSai) ; 
to appear, to be manifest, to remain, to exist (yaivev&ai, (HrjXovfrSat, 
fieveiv, icaraarrjvai). To all these verbs the definite designation 
of the predicate, frequently added in English by the aid of a pre- 
position or of the illustrative particle as, is joined in Greek in the 
nominative. 

01 viTEp rd TTEVTrjKavTa ETt] yEyovoTEQ KaXovvrai yepairepoi, 

'AXKifiidhiQKEyEipoTovqrai or parity '6q. — £v^at^wv (fxiivErai 6 dvrjp, 
— ^a\£7rov ^okeI tovto to Epyov.- — ol Hipffai evojjliCovto 'aX^tjuwra- 
rot. — $tXo7ro/jU^v, oy^oi'iKOvra ett\ yEyovcog, arparrjyoQ riov 'A^cuJ v 
rjpE$r) to oydoov (1).— — ot vofioi ctafiivovaLV aKivrjTOi, 

Note 2. (§ 102. 4.). The subject is not designated by a par- 
ticular term in the proposition, when it is either already contained 
in the verb or known from the context. This takes place (a). 

(1) For the eighth time. 



366 SYNTAX. 

when a personal pronoun, upon which no particular emphasis lies 
(§ 99. 4.), supplies the place of the subject : (b) when something 
farther is said of a subject previously mentioned ; (c) when the 
verb expresses an action which is performed only by a subject 
appointed thereto ; (d) when the discourse is of indefinite sub- 
jects. The indefinite pronoun one, sometimes used by us in this 
case, is expressed in Greek either by the third person plural 
(where civSpuiTrot, men, people, is to be supplied), or by the se- 
cond person singular (where the speaker supposes a definite per- 
son with him), or by the third person of the passive. 

JZefiopai rovg 7rpe(rfivTEpovg. — Svfxov Kparovfiev. — opdre to [ieX- 
\oi>. — T<Jiv -Ifiifiptdv dXKifjLwraroi fiev eIgiv ol KaXovpevot AveirayqiJ 
(bopovffi tf kv rolg TroXefxoig Trikrag pacpdg. — EKijpv^E (sc. 6 icijpv%) 
ro7g"EXXr/crt TrapaffXEvdacKrSai. — dvafiivETE, etog arifxaivoL rrj ardX- 
iriyyi (sc. 6 aaXwiKTrig). — 'A7roXXa>va rijg taScipag evperijv dvayo- 
pevovan. — \p6vog diicaiov dvcpa heiKWGLv fxovog' kcucov 3e kclv ev 
fipzpa yvoirjg [u<£. — 6 Hvpog Xeyerat yeviarSat Trdig IvafifiiHrov. 

Note 3. (§ 102. 5.) Frequently also the subject and predicate 
stand together without a copula, which in Greek is suppressed in 
all places where its absence does not offend against perspicuity. 

"EXXtjv eyio (efyu'). — rd ti5v <j)iXiov (earl) Koivd. — ov^ev (?]v) 6 ti 
ov% vTreayETo. — d<)r\Xov (kari) to fxeXXou. — ^yrjroi^elffiv) olavSpw* 
iroi. — ao(j)6g fxev IkeIvoq (sort), vjielg £e atypoveg (lore). 

4. From the assigned rule (3), that the pre- 
dicate and copula must correspond in external 
form to the subject, the following exceptions 
occur in Greek : 

(a) If the subject is a neuter plural, the copula 
(verb) is added in the singular. 

Td Sticata /ecu iravra, ova apery TrpaTTtTai, KaXa kari 
Kai aya%a. — -ret /carw ttiq A'itvtiq yuypia ^pv/noig e i e i- 
\rj7TT a i,—~Ta £(ua rpkyjti. — aXrfiy] e g t i v a av Xsyccc. 

Note 4. This rule, however, does not obtain without excep- 
tion, the plural of the verb being frequently used, when the sub- 
ject is in the neuter plural, by the poets indeed often in mere 
conformity to the exigency of verse, but by prose writers 
usually only when the subject is an appellative of persons, or the 
idea of individuals in the plurality requires to be made distinct 



COMBINATION OF SUBJ. WITH PRED. & COP. 367 

and prominent ; eg. Xenoph. Anab. I. 7. 17. ravry fiev olv rrj 
ty/xepcc ovk k\iaykoaro (SacriKevg, aXX v7ro-)((t)povvT(ov tyavepd r)aav 
ical 'Ittttojv leal dv$pu)Tru)v "tx vr l 7roXXa (many individual traces were 
observed). — Xenoph. Cyrop. V. 1. 14. rd juoxSypd dv$pu)7ria 
TraaioVf oifiat, rixiy kinSviiiuv depart} kvn, mVeira tpiora 
alriwyrai (1). 

(b) In collective ideas, on the contrary, the 
copula and also the predicate frequently stand in 
the plural. 

To (TTpaTOTTe^ov ave^wpov v.— ri tyvkov aXXo, rj 
av%p(i)7roi, SeovQ ^e p a tt e v 6 \) a i j —to 7r\ri^!og au 
f^eXovffi GTaGiaZuv. — o Sripoq £ic to StctTpov ir p o- 
z\% 6 v t £ q £j3oa)v irpoyj-ipiaaa^ai fie orarrj-yov. 

(c) If the subject is considered only gene- 
rally as an object, which from its nature belongs 
to some general class of things, the predicate 
stands in the neuter singular without regard to 
the gender and number of the subject. In English 
translation the predicate in such cases is accom- 
panied either by the indefinite pronoun something 
or by the substantives thing, matter, being, and 
the like. 

Ovk ayaSov 17 iroXvicotpavia' e'iq KolpavoQ £arw. — 
a <rz £ v e a r e p ov (2) yvvrj av&poe. — r? avSptla noTepov 
fori SiSa/CTOv 17 ^) u ff 1 /c o v. — at jU£ra/3oXa! (eio^) 
X v 7T ij p 6 v. 

(d) The predicate determines its gender by the 



(1) First the singular ttrrt, because a general condition of all 
is assigned where the idea of plurality does not appear, then the 
plural cuTLbJvTai as expressive of an action which each of the 
many commits. — (2) A weaker creature. 



368 SYNTAX. 

idea and not by the external form of the subject, 
chiefly when the appellative of a person is con- 
tained in the neuter. 

To lULupaiciov tyzvBTO k a X o g. — to 7rcu'8iov, rig epa o 

(e) If the subject stands in the dual, the pre- 
dicate and copula are often added in the plural, 
and if several predicates refer to this one subject, 
these, because the dual is a more rare and in 
some words a totally unusual form, stand some- 
times in the dual and sometimes in the plural. 

'ASe\(j>io $vo fxutv icaO' iifikpav fiopov koivov Kareip- 
yaaavro. — -ffcjxpv § evo^oir} Ztuc? tczS u reXeire fioi 
Zavovri jiiez eaz e c tjojj, yaipzrov t , ov yap p. tTi pA£- 
ttovt I a 6\p e (7 ^ avSig. 

(f) With substantives of the feminine gender 
when they stand in the dual, attributives (ad- 
jectives, participles and articles) are frequently 
found in the masculine form, because the dual, 
as unnecessary, did not possess a complete for- 
mation for all words. 

AfJL(j)lO TOVTU) rw 7To\££. $VO ywaiKt Epi£oVTE, TW 

5. If two or more subjects occur in one pro- 
position, the common predicate and the copula 
either stand in the plural, or determine their ex- 
ternal form by the subject which is next them, 
or, if the subjects designate inanimate objects, 
the predicate stands in the neuter plural. 



APPOSITION. 369 

'RffT p clti] y 1 1 twv v£wv 'A p i ff r £ v c, /cai KaA- 

Xt/cpaTije, /cat Tt/uavwp. rtva tVtovv/uav £X £,t 

1 7T 7T i a c /cat IlspiavSpoc ; — a viffTaro £/c tow ctvu- 
ttogiov o T/juap^oc /cat o $> i\r\ (Xb)V> U7r o kt e- 
vovvreg Nt/aav. — aj3ej3ata (fffrt) /cat ttXowoc, *<" 
§6%a, /cat Tifxr}. — /cat tyw /cat cru 7roXXa Stj tov apkaKUV 
ev&ca ty) 7roXet /cat e '/ ir o ju £»v teat €7rpac;ajusi'. 



§ 101. (110). 
APPOSITION. 

1. The predicate attributed to a subject either 
appears as a property connected with it and 
is united by the copula, or it declares the nature 
of the subject independently and is then sub- 
joined without a copula ; e. g. Socrates was wise, 
— Socrates, the wise, — This latter mode of attach- 
ing the predicate is called apposition, and the word 
which forms it must stand in the same case with 
the subject. 

KfNHffoc, Auowv jScktiXeijc, a7TEj3aXE Trjv apyjjv. — 2a>- 
Kparriv, tov <to<j>ov, awzKTUvav ot AStyvaibi. — apex?), fii- 
yioTOv twv Sewv Sujqov, Seta lart /cat aSavaroc.- — 2/cuSatj 
jSap/Bapov to k$voe ? av&p£ioi ho* /cat fJ.ayip.oi. 

2. An apposition can also be subjoined to per- 
sonal and demonstrative pronouns, and it occurs 
in Greek even when the personal pronoun is not 
expressed but is contained only in the verbal form, 

b b 



370 SYNTAX. 

E/CHVOU, TQV CTO^lffTOU, TTCIVTSQ KctTaytXioGi, r}fAUQ 9 ot 

Ta\anr(Dpoi, aTToXwXafJLev. — 01 (azv AXkju^vtjc, /cat 2^ueX*?c 
uiot £ua>vovvrcu a<£oovric£C* o c£ Maiac ttjc ArXavr/c\>c 
<$iaKovovf*ai avroiq (1). 

3. Even possessive pronouns frequently ex- 
perience apposition, which however always stands 
in the genitive, because the relation of the genitive 
is expressed in the possessive (§ 108. I. 1.). The 
English language instead of this apposition makes 
use of an ejaculatory proposition, by a repetition 
of the subject which is indicated in the posses- 
sive pronoun. 

Aiapira'Covcn to, e/ma r ov k a ko§ a t pov o g (2). — - 
ra/uia Svgtjivov /ca/ccL — airirz £<p v^rkpav r u) v |3 a 
p a p a> v (3) yjopav. 



§ 102. (103). 
OBJECT. 



1. That which is declared in the predicate 
denotes either a mere condition of the subject, in 
which it is conceived by itself without connection 
with other objects, or an action by which the 
subject stands in connection with and relation to 
others. 

2. The object to which the action proceeding 
from a subject is directed, is called proximate, 



(1) The apposition 6 Maiag (vlog) refers to the £yu contained 
in dtaKrovfxai.— (2) Wretched that I am !— ~ (3) Ye barbarians ! 
10 



ILLUSTR. OF THE REL. DESIG. BY THE CASES. 371 

when it is acted upon immediately, and remote 
when it only participates in the operation with- 
out being immediately affected by it. 

3. This object is always designated by an ob- 
lique case, the proximate usually standing in the 
accusative, the remote frequently in the dative. 



§ 103. 

ILLUSTRATION OF THE RELATIONS DESIGNATED 

BY THE CASES. 

1. Every object is considered generally in a 
'two-fold respect : (a) as an object by itself, or 
individual whole without combination or contact 
with other things ; (b) as a member of a greater 
whole and so far standing in combination with 
and relation to other objects. 

2. The object which is considered individually 
we designate by a definite appellation and use 
the same unchanged in all eases where we speak 
of this object as an individual thing. This is the 
primitive form of the noun — the nominative. 

3. If we consider an object in its combination 
with and relation to others, one only can be 
adduced as independent and with an unchanged 
appellation, while the others admit only of being 
represented as dependent and standing in re- 
lation to the same. This dependence is designa- 

b b 2 



372 SYNTAX. 

ted by a change of the primitive form of the noun, 
which we denominate a dependent or oblique case. 

4. The oblique cases therefore denote the re- 
lations of things to each other These relations, 
which taken singly are innumerable, may all be 
reduced to two principal classes 'f (a) combination 
in a quiescent state: (b) combination in an active 
state. 

5. Combination in a quiescent state is either 
internal and essential, which is designated by the 
genitive ; or external and contingent, which is de- 
signated by the ablative. 

6. In the combination in an active state one 
object operates and exerts a power upon another,, 
This operation however is either immediate so as 
to move and change the other object — relation of 
the accusative; or mediate, so that the other object 
does not itself receive the same but only parti- 
cipates therein— relation of the dative. 

7. The use of a case must be determined by 
the relation which it indicates and the cases 
themselves arranged according to the two given 
principal classes of relation. Hence if we proceed 
from the active relation, the natural order of the 
cases is : accusative, dative, genitive (ablative), in 
which we shall here treat them. 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 373 



§ 104. 

USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

1 . The accusative stands in Greek with tran- 
sitive verbs (i. e. those which express an action 
immediately operating upon an object), and as- 
signs the proximate object in answer to the ques- 
tion, whom ? or what ? 

Oi f EAArjvee hviKiqaav r ov g Ylkpa a g. — oarig p.rj ko~ 
Xcl'Cei t a 7ra$77, avrog vtt avrtjv KoXaferai. — QrfGEvg 
ty]v ApiaSvrivEv Na£w kclteXittev. — oi Stoi ovte ffi- 

T OV E($OV(TlV, OVTE TTLVOVGIV OIVOV. 

2. Other verbs also, which in the Latin and 
some modern languages frequently take the object 
in the dative or are connected with it by a prepo- 
sition, require the accusative in Greek. Such are : 

(a) Verbs signifying to benefit (oj^eXeIv, ovivag- 
Sai), to hurt (fiXtnrTuv), and in general all which 
denote an action, tending to the advantage or 
disadvantage of a person ; consequently to do good 

or evil to, (ev, KaXiLg, Kaiciog iroiuv, EVEpysrEiv, kciko- 
ttoielv), tO Speak well or ill of (eu, KctKtog XtyEiv), to 

injure (aSucuv), to take revenge upon (ri/JLtapuaSai) ; to 
render services, when the service implies support 

Or protection (^EpaiTEVEiv, SopvfyopE'iv, ETriTpoTTtveiv), to 
Jlatter (koXclkeveiv, Swtteveiv.^) 

O KoXaK ev wv tov g (j>iXov g TroXXa a § i k e i 
Kai pXa 7TT ei avr ov g. — o ^(jJKparrjg oicaaKwv 7rAacrra 
w <j>eXt}g £ roue ffwovrag.— Wp£? ayazoi d> <p e- 



374 SYNTAX. 

Xov <s i to k o iv o v. — iroXXaKig Kai SovXoi r i fi w~ 
povvr at Tovg a^lscovg S s <7 7T o r a g. — £ v X e y g 
r o v ei) X&yovT a. — firj c pa r o v g TzSvrjKOTag 
KctKuig. — -ayc&oi iroXirai r rj v n 6Xiv tvtpytTovau 
— ol 7ro\ifxioi tt\v paGiXtwg y^w p a v KaKOiroiovGu 
— ev oia% y qti KaKbj g Xkyov atv ot ayc&oi t o v g 
KaK ov g. 

Note 1. The verb XvaiTekelvjto he of use to, always takes the 
dative ; on the contrary, the occurrence of wQeXeIlv with the 
dative is rare and confined to the poets, as Sophocl. Antiq. 558. 
wars rolg Savovcriv ojtyeXslr. 

(b) Verbs to conceal, to keep secret, to be concealed 
(jcpvirruv, Kpvirrzc&ai, \av%veiv), to escape, fly, flee, 

Tim away, withdraw {(pevyeiv, ajro^iSpaGKeiv, SpairtTev- 

uv), to be afraid or ashamed (cj>o(3ei<j%i, Sacav, m&iff- 

Stai, ctKjyyvzG^ai). 

AovAoc air o$ pag top §£ a tt or r\v %avarov &gtiv 
a£iog. — ov Xr]G£ ig r ov tt ar epa ravra TroirjGag. — fir] 
rpev y s r o v virhp Trig ira.Tpi$og kiv^vvov . — fir) a tr o- 
k pviTT ov jute, oig av fSovXoto (j>iXog yev£a£lai. 

3. The accusative also occurs in Greek with 
intransitive verbs, when the object which receives 
the action contained in the verb is definitely as- 
signed. This takes place chiefly in the two 
following cases : 

(a) In verbs signifying to go, to come, to reach, 
to arrive, or in general any motion, the object into, 
over or through which the motion extends, is put 
in the accusative, while in English it is usually 
joined to these verbs by means of a preposition. 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 375 

''Ore §rj rrjv vijgov a <j> l k e r o, fiirupQvSe ( 1 ) ?/i£v 
(2), o(ppa /aiya GTrioq'iKero, rw \vi Nvju^ij vaiev. 
Hom. Od. 5.55 ff. — ^vaer (3) 'A^aiwv t'Svoc, 
£-y£ip£ §£ (jiwra f/cacrrov. Hom. II. 17. 552. 7ropeve(i%i 
Or zXSeilv oSqv. — ou cWarov £(m § i a /3 a t v e i v rov 
ttot a fxov, a pj vriyofievov. — w £ayoi, nveg egte ; 7ro- 
Sev 7rXaS' v y p a k£\ ev% a. 

Note 2. In the verbs to cowze, to advance, to arrive, the accusa- 
tive stands without a preposition, only when the particular point, 
at which one arrives or will arrive, is accurately and definitely 
assigned. Also the use of the accusative without a preposition 
in these verbs belongs more properly to the poets, particularly to 
the Epic writers, while in prose a preposition is usually subjoined, 
as in English, 

(b) Instead of general expressions, indicating 
existence in a state or occupation in an action, 
the Greeks make choice of a verb, which contains 
the same idea, and is usually of the same origin 
with the substantive and therefore designates the 
existing state more nearly and definitely. This 
verb, although intransitive, always takes the ac- 
cusative. 

Kiv3uv£v<rw rourov tov klv^vvov. — kcii ol aX- 
Xot r)G^ Lvt] aav ravrrjv ttjv v 6 a o v. — Xayw |3/ov 
\Z>v) SeSiwc kqi rp£jii(ov. — tpavsputg tov tt 6Xz fiov it o- 

X gjU-TJ <JO[JlZ V. £7T I jUfX O VT ttl irCLGCLV £ 7T I fX k\ £ I a V. 

— X rjpov Xr/p£i g. — a/Xcc|3ou tt\v tvXa j3 £ la v, rj v 
tyu) Xeyco. 

4. Many verbs whose action admits of more 
than one object without determining the nearest, 



(1) Epic for eg i\TT£ipor.—(2) For t'iei, see § 80, Obs. II. 4. — 
(3) See §75. I. 1. d. 



376 SYNTAX. 

have in Greek a double accusative, the accusative 
of the person and the accusative of the thing. 
To these belong verbs, implying : to do good or evil 

(ayv&a, Kam 7rotav), to Speak good OY evil (ayuSa, Kaica 

Xeyuv), to ask Qpwrav, ipzaSai), to beg, to demand 

(airuv, cutugScli, a^iovv), to teach (SiSaoTCfiv, 7rai§£V£iv), 

to put on, to put off (kvlvuvy ap<j>iivvvvai, eicSvuv), to take 

away, to rob, to deprive (a^aijoacrScu, Grepzlv, awoGTe- 

puv), to conceal, to keep secret (Kpvirruv, kpvttteg%i, 

aTTOKpVTTTZG^ai), 

' Att avr a q kv o'ikm s'/pero t o v tt a i § a. — vvv §rj 
E/uie 7roXXoe ot/cerat gItov a'tTOVGi, 7roXXoi §e l/ua-* 
r la.—o Kvpoq rjptJTa tovq avr o fioXov q t a TMV 
ttoX^lwojv. — ov TTpaTTOjULai de XpV fiar a. — tov p'- 
v o v fxot scai (j>i\o v TTctiSa a <£ £ i X £ r o tt)v ^vy^riv. 
— o ^tJKpaTYiQ t ov q fx a S rj t a q £ S i $ a £ £ rrjv aw- 
<$> poG vv r\ v. — Tcaiq fieyaq, fiucpov £^wv yjTiova, £ r epov 
tt a i S a julik p o v, fikyav tyovra yjLTwva, k k$v g aq au- 
r o v, rov pkv kavrov k k £ r v ov tj jlkJ) le g e, tov &£ 
ekelvov avToq kvk^v. — 7r o X X a k a k a ei ir ev avSpw- 

7T O V C. 7}V T I G £ £ y to (pdVW K a K O V 7T £ 7T O I 7] K to q, 

ojULoXoyto a^iKeiv, — tc clk a ir oWa zo p y z T p to a q. — 
r a £ Gy^ar a £ X £ y o v aXXrjXov q. — o ynsjpyoq, o re 

tpOlO, GV$£V O Tl (IV G£ CL 7T O K p V 1p (l I 7 O OTTOJq £7TOirj(T£V e 

- — ov g e k p vip to r r)v Efxrvv y vu> jultj v. 

Note 3. With these verbs an accusative remains also in the 
passive, namely the accusative of the thing ; e. g. efiol ariveiv 
Trapean, ttKovtov 7rarpu>ou ktT]o>iv kareprffxivrf. 

Note 4. As an exception from the given construction must be 
noticed the verb 3e7c$at, to beg, which on account of its primi- 
tive signification, to need, takes the genitive. (Comp. § 108. 1. 
4. a.) 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 377 

5. Verbs signifying, to call, to appoint, to choose, 
to make, to account, to consider, or regard, have in 
the active a double accusative, because the 
notion of the verb extends to the object and to 
the property ascribed thereto at the same time. 
These verbs take in the passive a double nomina- 
tive (see § 100. Note 1.) 

Sojuffnjv ovojxaCovai tov avSpa tovt o v. — 
ol 7To\ejj,LOL tov g ' AS r\ v a l o v q uXovto <T V fX fxay^ov q. 
— o Kvpog tov Ttofipvav airtdsi'^e (J 7 p a r 17 y 6 v. — 
itXovtov teal r i ju 77 v /cat S o £ a v a y a% a volu£<ov- 
aiv ot 7roXXot. — r o v Savarov ov k a k o v r)yziG%ai 
Xprj, aXXa kcikuv a ira X X a -y r) v. 

Note 5. Generally the accusative of the predicate is accompa- 
nied with elvai, in which case the construction assumes the cha- 
racter of an accusative with the infinitive ; e. g. Gocptarrfv ovofia- 
Zovcriv elvai tov avdpa, — tov Tcp&TOv fior)$ri(ravTa 7ro\\o~iQ /nafca- 
piffrov elvai, E7roir}(rEv. 

6. When in addition to the whole object, which 
receives the operation of the verb, particular 
specification is also made of a part, in which this 
operation is immediately and principally shown, 
both the whole and part stand, as proximate ob- 
jects, in the accusative. This form of construc- 
tion occurs most frequently in Homer and with 
the poets in general, especially in the verbs: 
to seize, to hit, to wound, and generally to reach a 
thing. 

UpojTov yap liiv i 6 v r a j3a'Xs arrjSoc. Hom. II. 

4. 480. — T 6 v p' 'OoWeuc j3aX£ Sovpl k6 p a rj v. 

ib. 501 Tpwac y a X oq eXXaj3 £ Svpr, ib. 14. 

475.— r o v \x\v apa TXavKog a* r fj S o q ft £ <r o v ohraat 



378 SYNTAX. 

covpi. ID. 16. 597. — Tptoag $£ Tpofxog alvog vTrrjXvSt 
yvla f/cafftov (1). ib. 20. 44. 

7. Since the accusative (as is clear from the 
above rules) serves always to designate the object 
upon which an action immediately passes, it fre- 
quently stands also with intransitive verbs and 
adjectives containing a general expression, and 
indicates the fart or more definite object to which 
this expression must be immediately and princi- 
pally referred. This is called the accusative of 
nearer definition and is to be expressed in English 
by different prepositions, especially by : in, as to, 
in respect to. But in Greek its exposition by 
assuming the omission of Kara, or of any other 
preposition, is incorrect. 

Tov § clkt v\ ov aXyw tovtov. — Kafivb) rovg 
otp^aX/Liov g. — it 6 8 a g wicvg AyiWzvg. — navv Suvog 
Ufxi t clvt r) v rrjv r k y^v r\ v. — r o /£ £ v a to jjl a ttovei, 
rag $£ <ppevag vyiaivu. — 2t> pog r\v r rj v irarpiSa. 
— Av$6g fart to y iv o g. — tyvvai o Kvpog XiytTcu e id o g 
fmlv KaWictTog, ipv^riv §£ ^iXav^pdyiroTaTog. — o Ma£>- 
avag TTorafiog hkogi /cat irevre wodag c^ti to ev p o g, — 
evict tiov (j>a\ayyi(t)v ouo r/jtiiwjSoXiata to jxk y zx 6 g 

£(TTL. TO §£V$pOV TTZVTrjKQVTCl TTO^lOV £(7Tl TO VlpOg, 

Note 6. The accusative of nearer definition, if rightly consi- 
dered, is nothing more than an accusative of the object. The 
difference of the Greek and English idioms, however, depends 
upon a fundamental difference in the mode according to which 



(1) Three accusatives of the object, all dependent upon vin)- 
\v$e, which takes Tpwac as the general object, 'UaaTov as a 
strengthening appendage, and yu7a as a nearer designation of 
the part where the terror is shown. 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 379 

the things are viewed. Thus the Greek conceives the state and 
property as independent and as operating upon the object, and 
therefore uses the accusative (as a designation of the object.) 
The English, on the contrary, conceives the connection of both 
with the object as accidental and expresses this by prepositions ; 
e. g. Kafivh} rovg o0£a\juov£, / have a disorder (which is shown J 
in the eyes. 

Note 7. In many constructions and phrases the accusative is 
evidently elliptical and to be regarded as the effect of an over- 
strained brevity of expression ; e. g. 6/j.wjjit Tcavraq Seovq, I 
swear by all gods (where the participle TrpoQKakovfievoq may be 
supplied). 

8. Those verbs also, which are always con- 
nected with another case, stand nevertheless in 
the accusative, when a pronoun or some other 
general expression supplies the place of a specific 
definition. 

'Q ayaSe, jur/ ayvoH aeavrov, jul^e a/utapTave, a ol 
ttXeigtoi afxapravovai (1). — f^l coKiofiev cpiovrzg a v 7]ow~ 
jULE^Sa ovk avTiTicjuv av^Jig a v XvirCjfAE^a (2), 

9. Lastly, the accusative stands also in defini- 
tions of time and place to the questions, how long? 
how far ? 

MktSov vfiiv Swgid TrXziova ?j vvv aXajuifiavzTE, o <j o v 
av % o o v o v ttoXeilioq y, — Kal y*l£G $£ kcm t plrrjv i] fxk- 
p a v to avTO tovto zirparTOV. — 17 ttoXiq fj KaXovjj.evr] ' Ig 
airkyzi oktlj fifisptJv o § o v awo Baj3uAujvoc. 

10. All prepositions connected with the ac- 
cusative denote a direction or extension to 
some point, a stretching, reaching, finishing, com- 
pleting. Hence they designate particular parts 

(1) afxapTdveiv tlvoq.^ (2) ijhffSai tlvl and XwKtiaSai Tivit 



380 SYNTAX. 

of the general relation expressed by the accusa- 
tive and are added to the same for greater perspi- 
cuity and distinctness. According to their signi- 
fication they may be connected either with this 
case alone or with one or two of the other oblique 
cases besides it In reference hereto we divide 
them into three sections : 

(a) With the accusative only are connected, 

3 Ava, over, through, everywhere in ; daring, 
throughout ; along ; up, upwards, 

Ava tov TTorajxov, — ava ttovtov ttXuv, — -etti tov * Atuoc 
criroSar/ hykvzro tayvpa ava rraaav rr/v Avdiav. — ava Traaav 

yfxzpav (during the whole day; — day by day).—- 

ava (JTOfia i^siv (to have ill One's mouth). — ctva. Kpa- 
toq (by force). — ava jdepoq (by turns). — ava 7T£VTe 

(five at a time). 

Eiq or eg, into, to; until, to, unto, up to, as far 
as ; to, for (in expressing the aim) ; with respect to, 
with regard to, concerning, on account of 

ElC^XSoV tig T7JV TToXlV. (TV p?§£V Uq Bflk VTTOVOU TOl~ 

ovTOV.——ovdevoq (byq av%pL07rojv IvSf^c zivai uq ou$fv.— 
kiraivuv riva uq ri. — eiq iravra (1) wptorov uvai.—vavq 
uyov kq raq TpiaKOGiaq. — uq r}fxaq (up to Our time). 

Note 8. When it is said that elg sometimes stands for kv with 
the dative, it must be understood only in reference to the Eng- 
lish idiom. For the Greeks in all verbs, which express motion 
or direction towards a point, use elg with the accusative, while 
we frequently have in, &c. ; e. g. Xoyog diecoSr) eg tyiv 7to\lv (a 
report was spread in the town.) — KarariSevSai kg yjupiov tl (to 
deposit in a place). 

(1) In every respect. 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 381 

Note 9. Sometimes also elg stands with the genitive, which 
must be explained by the omission of some known substantive. 
This is] most usual in the formule elg cidov (supply c^ua), and 
after verbs signifying to come, to go, as elg (j>i\ov or elg SiSaaKaXov 
(supply okiav.) 

Note 10. '£2c, to, is properly not a preposition but a particle, 
which is frequently joined with prepositions signifying direction 
towards a point, to indicate that the idea of the preposition must 
not be taken in a strict and definite sense ; e. g. u>g 7rp6g, (Jg elg, 
as towards, as to, i. e. towards, to. By reason of this frequent 
combination with prepositions <og became gradually used as 
a preposition itself, and as such denotes approach, yet always 
with the collateral idea, that the approach is made at a distance 
and with timidity or reverence. Hence it is chiefly, though not 
exclusively, used with persons ; e. g. iog rovg Seovg. — iog tov /3a- 
<Ti\ki. 

(b) The prepositions, which govern two cases, 
have, in connection with the accusative, the fol- 
lowing significations : 

Am, through (of place) ; usually expressing 
cause: through, by, on account of. 

Aia tovto cvo utcl zyoptv, arofxa Ss %v, iva 7t\u(j) [aIv 
aicovtofjiev, 7]TT0va $£ XgywfiEV. — $ia Tovg iv fxayofiLvovg 
Kpivovrai al jiayjcu. — cktjSeotoc S' ap kvwpTO ysXivg fia- 

KClpZGGl ZEOIGIV, (i)Q 'IdoV* H$CU<TT01> &ia ^WfULaTtt 7TOl7TVVOVTa. 

Horn. II. 1. 599. f. 

Kara, denotes extension over a thing, also inde- 
finite proximity, and lastly, correspondence, or 
suitableness ; hence, at, on, in, with, near, about, 
for, to, against ; with regard to, after the likeness of, 
according to. 

Tlov rjciov Apteral h kcit aypov ;—- ot Tag Tvfivi\aiag 
VJ)aovg tvoiKOvvTtg yvfxvoi f/3/axxav Kara tt/v tov %£povg 
wpav. — Kara tov kcito. Kpotaov yrpovov ol 27rapTiarai fc«- 



382 SYNTAX. 

SwireprEpoi Ty TToXe/jLto hyzyovzvav rwv Teysarwv. — ^v 
Kara vovv Trpa^wfizv, \arai i) a<[>o<$og aa<j>a\f)g. — ra. Tlvprj- 
vaia hpr\ Kara to vipog kcil Kara to jjiey&oc vTrapya c\a- 
<j>opa T(s)V aAXcov. — paGiXzvg tuv /isAicrcwv V0[xo3£tu Kara 
rovg fxtyaXovg apyovrag. — eSo&v avrto irpo<Jz\%uv juh'£wv 
rig rj Kar av^pwirov. — Kara iroXtig (from town to 

town). — Kar hviavrov (year by year). 

'Y7TEJO, over, beyond, above (of place, time, and 
measure). 

KX&apyog kiroXtfAZi roig Opa^i roig vrrep, EXXi7<77rovrov 
o'ikovgi. — vrrlp i}fiiav avrwv ekjlv 01 r)rrr}^5ivreg. — V7rep 

\6yov (above all description). — vvlp uooov (more 
than fate requires). 

(c) The prepositions, which govern three cases, 
have in connection with the accusative the follow- 
ing significations : 

Afi<j>i and Hepl, about, around, round about, at, with, 
near ; in reference to, with regard to, towards, about. 

'Opwv o-£ afxcj)' 'irnrovg tyovra (1), aju(j> apfxara, a{i<$>i 
fjLtjyavag (2), 7}yovjar}v, sttel ano rovrov eyoXavaig, tote 
Kal a^i(j> £/u£ (3) V£uv gjo\j\v .—~tu)v avfxfxayjjjv dir&avov 
afityi (4) rovg pvpiovg Kai rpiayiXiovg. — zu)pa£, Tnpi ra 
xrrepva ap/no£ii>v tKavrio \arai. — rrspi jusaag vvKrag. — KaKi- 
ovg ucrl irzpi r\fxag (5), i) -ti/xeig irtpl sKuvovg. — ol dju(j)i 

nva, ot irepi rwa (the companions, associates, 



(1) e^eiv dfji(j)i ri, to be about something, L e. to be occupied 
with it — (2) Engines of war. — (3) For me, in order to have^ in- 
tercourse with me. — (4) Nearly s about. — (5) slvai irepi nva, to 
behave to one, act towards one. 



USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 383 

friends, dependents of any one) tcl irepl tyiv iroXiv 

(the relations of the state). 

"Em, upon, towards, to, over, with, among ; until, 
unto, to, up to; against, for, after (to express the 

aim). — ' Kvafia'ivuv £$' 'ittttov. — levai tirl rove ttoXb/uliovq. 

KXlV£LV £7T£ TO ^LipOV . £7Tl Svo (TTaSia (tWO Stadia 

wide) zwiTpuQ fyizpaq (for three days, three days 

long).— irkfiTTuv £7rt xpw aTa ( to sen d for money). — 
£7rl ri ; (for what ? why ?) 

Mera after (post and ad.) 

lionet av%p(t)7TOQ vvicto. juiz% i]Xiov, /cat Xipbv fiera Kopov. 
— o Kjooicroc ^irtyzv kv SapcWi, ttoXei ry irXovcntoTary 
tu)v kv Tig Agio. pzTa Baj3vAwva. — ttXuv fxera ^aX^ov (to 

sail after brass, that is, in order to fetch brass).— 
petf vfjikpav (after break of day, that is, by day.) — 
jusTaTpiTriv fjfispav (within three days). 

Uapa, (I) by, to, near, beside, at. (2) by the side 
of, alongside, along, by, past ; hence (a) of time : 
during, in; and through (to denote the means, 
when the circumstances are assigned through 
which something is effected), (b) in comparison 
with (held beside or near to) ; for, the same as (so 
that it stretches alongside something, has the 
same extent or value.) (c) past, beyond, above, 
besides, against, contrary to. 

H o^bq Trap avTO to Tuyoq (f>£pu.— Trap oXov t6v j3iov 

TOVTO fSlWsCt. \(D{IZV TTUpa TO.Q VaVQ, TTCipa TTjV 7TOGIV 

yyyaXXovTO. — ^iXiTnrog ov irapa (1) ttjv avTOV pwfxrjv 



(1) While his strength lasted, i. e. under the influence of his 
strength, through or by his strength. 



384 SYNTAX. 

togovtov £7rr)v%,tiTai 9 ogov napa rrjv twv ASrjvm'wv a^itXaav. 
—irapa yvwjurjv (contrary to expectation). — irapa 
Svva/xiv (beyond the power), — trapa tovq aXXovg 

(above or more than the rest). — napa ttjv <j>vaiv 
(against nature.) 

Tlpog, Epic 7ron, to, in the direction of, towards ; 
in respect to, in inference to ; in comparison with, in 
proportion to, according to ; for, on account of (to 
assign the object or aim). 

YIogt} o$oq irpoq warepa tov gov \ — gkottute to. vjuiETEp 
ctuTGJV irpog ra twv c*XXo>v avSpwTrwv. — ra> yjpvGu Kara" 
^ptovrai irpoQ KOGfiov. — ra irpog tov iroXsfxov (the things 

belonging or relating to war, preparations, prac- 
tices of war).— 7rpbg (j>i\lav (friendlily).— 7r/)oc -n^ov^v 
(gladly). 

*Ytt6, under, (sub.) about, towards (to assign ap- 
proximation in point of time). 

YlTo' f I\lOV TjX^OV Ot 'EXXl]V£C.™-V7TO TOV GLVTOV y^pOVOV, 

—wo vvicTa (at nightfall.) 



Use of the Dative. 

§ 105. (107). 

SIMPLE USE OF THE DATIVE. 

1 . The dative serves to designate the more re- 
mote object, that is, it designates the object 
which merely participates in an operation without 



USE OF THE DATIVE. 385 

being immediately affected by it, or in which the 
effect or consequence of an action is shown. 

2. The dative stands in answer to the questions 
to whom or what 1 for whom or what ? to whose advan- 
tage ? to whose disadvantage ? 

ESw/ca (to i to j3ij3Aiov. — '£7r£or3e fx o t, id 7raiceg. — 
eiriTarro) cot tcl fikXriGTa 7roarr£iv. — v fi i v ukotojq 

SVVOVQ UfJLl. S £ O l C T£ KCll CL V S O U) IT O I Q CLQZGKti aVY]0 

KaXog KayaSoc— £ jul o I fihv iroXkfxioi 'AffffUjOioi, a o i Se 
vvv k^lioveg uaiv, r) £ fxo L — £*yw jii£V (j>iXog i\v £ k £ t v (o 
wg juaXiarra.— o rt av tovtcov KciTcnrpaZyg kcli goi KctXov 
serai, /cat Ty it 6 X £ i ayaSov. — o ^wKparrig kul irai^uv 
Kai GTrov^a'C^v sXvcriTiXti t oiq ffuvSiarpi (5 ov <r i. — 
£*yw ravra £7rpa£a r^ <tij ^i£v evdaifJiovia, Ty S 
f/irj KctKoSaifiovia. 

Note 1. The dative must also be explained as an indication of 
the more remote object, where it supplies the place of possessives, 
not only with words like (plXog, kx^pog, &c. (see § 99. Note 2), 
but also in perfect propriety with the verbs elvat, yiyveaSai and 
vTrdpy£Lv v which in this case are translated to possess, to have. 

Tuiv 7tXovtovvtojv rolg fxkv sari ^prjfxara, rolg de dypoi, rolg Be 
fioariifiara. — Kpdlcroc ETr^pwrrjas top kv AeXc^olg 6eov, tl av avrw 
7roit]aavri7ralSeg yivoivro. — virdpyE*- vvv ijjjJv ovdev rcov kinT^C)EiO)v, 
elarlv iftoitcai <f)i\oi kou dovXoi. — ovdkv ovriog 7}fj.irep6v kariv, wcnrep 
Vfie7g fjfuv avrolg. 

Note 2. Moreover the dative of personal pronouns, which is 
joined to verbal expressions of every kind by pleonasm (as it is 
usually called), is a dative of the more remote object and signifies 
that the person designated by the pronoun takes or should take 
a lively interest in the action expressed by the verb. 

To> (1) fiy fioi warepag 7roS' ofiolrj evSeo rifirj. Horn. II. 4. 
410. — 'Odvaaevg krvtyXwai jjle KaStvdovra, HoXvtyrjfiog (hr/ai npog 

(1) Therefore. 
C C 



386 SYNTAX. 

Toy 7rciTEpa, Kal aV ekeIvov tv(J)\uq Etfii cot, <o Hoaeidov.— uaKp^ 

TriVVTtoTEQOQ KCLL TlOV EV TO) ftlO) SlOpaTL KU)T£pOQ EK TOV ^EClTpOV (T O I 

£7ravE\ri\v$a. 

3. Words which express the idea of approach, 
meeting, union or connection, as well as all verbs 
implying an action which cannot be accomplished 
without approach to the object, as e. g. to asso- 
ciate, to speak, to converse, to pray ; to dispute, to con- 
tend, to vie ; to be attentive and the like are joined 
in Greek with the dative. 

Opoj r) fx i v avTiiraXovg ir pogiovT ag, oig rjuug 
ov dwrjaoat^a pa y^t <r% a i. — oi avfxfxayoi oi vvv 7rpog- 
yevojuevoi tt a pa pe v ov g i v i\ jj.iv Kai vGTcpov. — fiv\ £ p i- 
£ £ t oi g yovevai, kclv SiKaia Xtyyg. — -a X X o i g pkv 
it oXsfj. ova i, t oig $£ 2 kv9 a ig ovk £$£ \ovai $ i a- 
^ywvi^ffSa £.- — ug I/chvov a7roj3X£7rwv rote a X X o ig 
Xa X £ i c.— o/uiX £ It £ rolg ayaSolg. — jyw fxlv 
ffvvrv^wv tw a 8 £ X (j> u) Kapra \yaipov. — o ^wKpaTrjg 
woXXaKig <$ i eX £y et o r o i c. t £ % v it ai g, — £ upv- 
t a i it a g i 3 £ o i c, yev£G%ai ttote Kai tavTOvg tiridu^ai, 

OTl 7TIGT01 HCTIV. 

Note 3. As exceptions must be noticed the adverbs TrXYjaiov, 
TriXag and iyyvg, together with the verbs derived from them, as 
ifkriaia^Eiv, 7rpoo - 7re\a^f<7-9'at, EfX7r£\d£E<T$ai and kyyi^Eiv, of which 
the adverbs invariably take the genitive and the verbs inter- 
change it with the dative. (Comp. § 108, Note 4.) 

4. Verbs to rebuke, to blame, to reproach, to ac- 
cuse, to envy, to be angry, take the dative of the 
person. 

Ov a o i fnovov aWa Kal k jll o i XoiBopffGETa e.— 
rwv woXewv al eK^dojULevai rote (Sapfiapoig /uaXiGTa Toig 



USE OF THE DATIVE. 387 

Aa/CE^atjUOVtotc ey KaXovai v. — ov /iE^Ojttai 
rolg «PX £IV fiovXo (jlzv oig, aXXa roig vwaKovuv 
£T 01 hot epoig (1) — ov (j>% ovtir e r o v r o) tt)q 
Swapzug (2). — tl ^ a \ £ 7T a i v £ t c tw XtpairovTi', 

Note 4. As exceptions are to be noticed aiTiaaSai and Karr\- 
yopeiv, to accuse, the former of which always takes the accusative 
and the latter the genitive. 

5. Words implying equality, resemblance, suit- 
ableness, or the contrary have in Greek the dative. 

'H SsaTroiva o/uLolav t alg SovXaig ei^e tk]V £c- 
Srjra. — vfiuq ravavria 7Tparr£T£ £ K € i v 6 i C« — ° o"tSi|- 
pog iffoi rovg aazzvag kv rio TroXi/au) roig icry^v- 
po~tg. — X^P lv Gm £ X W irXtHTTriv, on rovg 7roXXovg OjUO- 
yviofiovaq f] jjliv kirolriaag, — tov (piXov rijuwcri £ S 
Iffou rw it ar p c. — oi aXXoi rwv IvSwv r o i c B a fc- 
r plo ig 7rapaTrXr}(Tiav i^ovcn Btalfctv, — S o u X to 
i o i k a g. 

Note 5. In like manner the dative stands also with 6 av-oc, 
because it expresses perfect equality. 

'Ev rw avrS Kir^vvtp to~lq (pavXorciroiQ aliopov/xcu. — 
ru)v avTwv 'ipyiov tKeivotg £7n^vfjL0Vfiev. — ov tcjv avriov, 
ovre kpyiov, ovte \6yu)v karlv fj peorrjg rS yi]pa. — w7rXicryLte- 
voi 7rdvr£Q i)crav ol 7repl top Kvpo v toTq civtoJq Kvpto birXoig. 
— ol irovrfpol to aTrXovv te kol d\r)$eg to uvto rw f)\i-jio) elvat 

d'lOVTCLl. 

(1) That are too willing. — (2) For his power. 



c c 2 



388 SYNTAX. 



§ 106. (108). 

THE DATIVE FOR THE DESIGNATION OF 
ABLATIVE RELATIONS. 

1. The dative is used also in Greek to assign 
some other relations, which are expressed in 
Latin by the ablative, that is, it serves to indicate 
all definitions which are mentioned incidentally 
and secondarily to the main object. The dative 
stands therefore in Greek to assign 

(a) The means by which and the instrument 
with which a thing is accomplished. Hence also 
the verb ^of^ou, to use, to make use of, takes the 
dative. 

Totv o (j>% a X ii oiv bpwfxzv. — ev toSfc, on r a v r r? 
t yj 8 o £ y oloGT u, kfioi re layypwg yapiGaaXai Km Tovg 
Gvpfxayovg peyaXa w^eXrJcrai. — 7}GTpcnrTZ fxlv ^aXich), 
tjvSu §£ (poiviKiai naaa r\ Grparia. — tov MaooWiov 
avrip 27rapnaTrje, bvofxa Kplfxvr)GTog, airoKr'ivvvGi, X i # (o 
tt\v Kztya\r\v 7rara£ac. — ol ttoXejluoi kj3aXXov Xizoiq 
Kai £7raiov fx a y^a i p a i g. — LirfSiva (j>i\ov ttoiov, 7rpiv av 
zZ&TciGyq, TTWQ Kt-ypriTai r o i g irporspoig (piAoig. 

Note 1. Also in expressing connection and community the 
Greeks use the dative without a preposition, if the object which 
performs or suffers any thing with another, does not appear inde- 
pendent but is subject to the direction of or belongs to the other 
and is therefore conceived as a means in the hand of the same. 
The occurrence of this dative without a preposition is the most 
frequent in conjunction with the pronoun avrog. 



USE OF THE DATIVE. 389 

'Eyw ottvoirjv ay elg rd ttXoicl efifiaiveiv, a avfi/juv Kvpog £017/, 
firi (1) ijfxdg avralg r alg rpirjpeffi Karahvar]* 

(b) The motive and cause, where the English 
use the prepositions from, out of, for, with, in, at, 
&c. Hence the verbs to rejoice, to be delighted or 
gratified, to be grieved, to be vexed, to be pleased, or 
sorry, govern the object by which the feeling is 
occasioned, in the dative. 

<I> p o vr) fxar 1 tovto tirpa^av 01 Azyvcuoi. — <p 6 /3 o> 
awriXSlov, ovk apeXs'ia. — ol AaK^ai/j.6vioL Kapra aX- 
yovai r ov r io t if) 7T a S e 1, — 7roXXot fxlv air&avov a ir o- 
7r X rj £ 1 a, 7roXXoi Z\ clk p ar si a. — ukotwq a o 1 yaipov- 
aiv 01 AaKzcai/jLOVioi, are TroXXa eiSoti. — ogtiq layvpuq 
y^pi) fxa a iv i]derai, ev igZi tovto, /cat ca7raviovTa ig\v- 
puq aviaffdai. — ol ^oXe/unoi ayaXXovrat t y v i K y. — ov§e v 
tl rouroic fxkya \vwovfi£$a. — r w -yvjivaZ^a^ai /xaXXov 
f X al p e TleXoirlSag, toi ^ juavS'ttvav o E7ra^uiv(GvSac. 

(c) The manner and w#?/ in which, or the cir- 
cumstances under which, a thing takes place. 

Bia uq ttjv oiKiav eic^X^ov. — iravTCL oWtra/cro, Lgte 

£lO£Vai tKCKTTOV TY]V tdVTOV \U)paV Kai [X £ T p If) KO.I T O IT If). 

— aStfiiGTOTzpoi vvv rj TrpoG&zv t av t y (2) yeyivrjVTai .-— 
o Kvpog ETriweXtia rovro liroiei. 

(d) The period of time, at which a thing takes 
place, or during which a thing continues or exists. 

Qq £V KU)fJL(f) $OKZl 7] TToXlQ TTO.GU UVOl T rj $ £ T 7J VI KT L 
TplQ tVLKTJGaV T aVT Yf T y T) fXi. o a. 

(1) p7 depends upon an expression to be understood, such as 
<j)o(3ovfxevog, which is not added because the idea of fear is already 
expressed in oKvoirjv. — (2) In this way. 



390 SYNTAX. 

2. The prepositions, which are joined with the 
dative, all denote the relation of rest and are as 
follows : 

(a) Connected with the dative alone : 

'Ev,in,at, by; in the presence of, before (coram), 
among (inter), by (to assigns the means). 

Ev rate ASrjvaiq k§i§a%tv 6 Sw/cparrjc.' — kv uSocrt (1) 
TToiu&zai Tovg Xoyovg. — yvajpi/aov rovro kv clttclgiv avSow- 

7TOIQ. G£Ot (71? JLICILVOVGIV iV ItpOlQ KCU kv OVpCLVlQlQ GT]fXUOiq 9 

a xpri ttquuv. — kv aoi ion, it depends upon you. — kv roic 
pokier a, by far the most, pre-eminently. — kv toiq 
TrptJTog, first of all. 

2w, £vv, with, together with, besides ; through the 
influence of, by means of. 

2uv rw \pov(i) irpoiovri au avvaviavofikv^v kiriyiyv£)G- 

KZIV tOOSCOVV KCtl TTJV kjLlTjV %VVafXlV.—y) TbJV (plXljJV KTT)GIQ 
TU)V TTlGTiOV ZGTIV OV^CLflbJQ GVV T7] j3 I a, aXXa jiaWoV GVV 

ry tvspyeela. — gvv %m, by God's help gvv toiq vojuoig, 

according to the laws. 

(b) Prepositions which govern three cases, 
have the following significations in connection 
with the dative : 

'Aficjii and wepi, about ; on account of, for. 

Owpa/ca tiyjtv afjupi tio arriSa. — trepi Ty \£ipi x,P V(TOVV 
<j>kpei SaKTvXiov. — rotpS afx^i yvvaiKi ttoXvv yjpovov a\yea 
k7ra%o[X£v. — tteoi rrj ttoAei (j>o(3zio%ai. 

En I, upon, on, after (immediate succession). It 
(1) before the informed, before experienced judges. 



USE OF THE DATIVE. 391 

also signifies dependence or subordination and hence 
is also used to assign the condition, object, aim, and 
motive, 

E^)' VcV>0 ETTEfXTTOV TT\V aO^A^V, ajJOQ ETTL TTJ KE(j>aXy 

\yovaav. — XpvaavTctQ }xev §rj ovtwq eIttev' avkarr\ £ cV 
avTio <£>EpavXag. — ewi jSatnAet (1) irav egtlto toiovtov. — 

Th)V OVTliiV TCL flEV EGTIV E<j>' 7]fXlV (2), TO. § OVK E(j) f)JLUV. 

— to filv En kfxoi oiyofxaC to S etti goi gegivg/jlcii. — etti 
7ro(7w (3) av eSeXoiq tovto TTOLriaai ; — avvEkaflov aVTOV 

eirl %vaT0). — ty w, E(j>' wte, on condition that, 

Mcra, among (inter) only in the older language 
and with the poets. 

Oioq yap f.i£Ta toigl yspaiTEpOQ Ev^pjjiai Eivai. — gv St 

TTCLGl fXET aSaVCLTOlGlV CLVaGGELQ. 

Uapa, with, among, at ; Upog, in, at, to. 

UavTiov /maXiGTa TifxaTai 17 dpETrj /ecu wapa Seoiq koi 
Trap dvxp&)TroiQ. — tyiXovq irpog tolq avayKaloiQ koXovjuie- 
voiq aXXovq KT(s)fXE^a porfilovQ. — irpoc; tovtm (4) oXoq 

EijLiL — 7rpoc TovToiq, 7TpoQ ^£, besides, moreover ', in 
addition. 

'Ytto, under (sub.) 

Ytto (dcigiXei Eivai. — to. v7ro tu) ovpavto bvTa. — u^>' 

ecivtm iroiEiG^ai, to reduce into his power. 

Note 2. With the poets ava is also used in connection with 
the dative, in the signf. upon ; e. g. Xpvcrijg fiXSe %clq eiri vrjaQ 
'A^a/tov ari\x\xar tywv kv %£p^ XP vff ty ^ LV ^ L ffKrjTrrpa). 

(1) Depends upon the king. — (2) In our power. — (3) At what 
price. — (4) I am wholly at this, that is, wholly occupied with 
this. 



392 SYNTAX. 

Use of the Genitive. 

§ 107. 

RELATION OF THE GENITIVE. 

1. The fundamental relation which the genitive 
expresses, is (§ 1 03, 5.) that of the essential or im- 
mediate connection of objects with each other. 

2. This fundamental relation of the genitive 
can be conceived in two ways, namely (a) so that 
several objects together constitute one whole or 
are mutually supplementary to each other ; (b) 
so that one condition arises or is developed out 
of another. Consequently, the doctrine of the 
usage of the genitive in Greek resolves itself into 
two principal divisions, namely, the genitive of 
supplement, and the genitive for the designation of the 
cause. 



§ 108. (106 and 107.) 
GENITIVE OF SUPPLEMENT. 

The different cases, in which the genitive forms 
the supplemental idea, must be classed according 
to a twofold respect, since the relation of essential 
connection can be conceived not only as subsisting 
and growing but also as dissolving and ceasing. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 393 

1. Relation of essential connection as subsist- 
ing: 

L Of two or more objects standing in essential 
connection with each other, that, to which ano- 
ther is conceived to belong, requires the genitive. 
But the part stands in essential connection with 
the whole, the property with the object, the feel- 
ing, expression and action with him that feels, 
expresses and acts, the possession with the pos- 
sessor, the enclosed with the enclosing and gene- 
rally the accident with the substance. When 
therefore a relation of this kind subsists between 
two substantives one of them appears in Greek 
in the genitive. 

H Trjg aperrjg kttigiq \xovr\ (Befiaiog. — tj aperrj KaWiG- 
rog avzpuTTLJv kcrri KOGfxog. — iroXeuyg ip v X*l 0i vofioi. — r) 
vcpavXig Krr?(7tj3iov kariv evprjfia. — o SaXoc rrig irarpi^og 
TrpoooTrjg £<rriv. — KaTowrpov H§ovg yaXicog ear , oivog Se 
vov. — arayoveg vSarog KOiXaivovGt irirpag. — ra twv dv- 
XptJTTUJV 7rpayfxaTa t&TrjXd kariv. 

Note 1. In this connection of two substantives, the Greeks 
use the genitive in a passive as well as in an active signification 
e. g. ?/ Thiv iroXefjLiojp $r]pa, pursuit of the enemies, and pursuit by 
the enemies. — tcoSoq vlov, longing of the son and for the son. — 
a-n-oiva irarpog, ransom given by the father and for the father, — 
r/ twi> rUviav IVi/xeXaa, care bestowed by the children and upon 
the children. 

2. All words containing the idea of a part take 
the whole in the genitive. This general rule is 
exemplified in Greek in the following cases : 

(a) With superlatives and numerals, as well as 
with all adj ectives and pronouns, denoting generally 



394 SYNTAX. 

the mere idea of quantity or number, as 7roXuc(much, 
many), oXlyog (little, few), nvkg, ivioi, ol ^v (some), 
aXXoi, tTspoi, ol Se (others), 01 aXXoi, 01 XoiTrot (the rest), 
c/ca(7roc, frag (each), ovSug (no one), the Greeks put 
the substantive, which designates the class spo- 
ken of, in the genitive. Other adjectives also re- 
quire the genitive of the substantive expression, 
if the property contained in them is not ascribed 
to a whole class but only to certain individuals of 
that class ; e. g. good men, ol ^p^oro! rc5v kv^p^irwv 
(for all are not good), on the contrary mortal men, 
ol %vi\to\ avSpuyn-oi (for all partake of this property). 

H fizyiGTr) t u) v v 6 (T b) v avaiSeia. — k t rj fx ar to v 
7r a vt d) v TifLUUTdTov £otiv avrjp (jtiXog (JvvtTog re Kai ev- 
vovg. — 7rp£crj3vrarov r to v ovtwv S £ o g.—-aXXa /uirjv 
T to v ye £to v r to v c %S p w v ov ttoXXoi plv ottXwv 
scFTeprjvrai, ttoXXoi &£ 'ittttmv ; — ov$ug r to v EX\?]vwv 

TOVTO TTOIZU (T£ p,OVOV T to V <j> l X It) V OVSC H$OV, T to V 

a v § p to v roig KaXoig k aya^oig alptTU)T£pov zgti zaveiv, 
i] oouXeueiv. — r to v drEKjuiaprijjg £ y^o v r to v otov 'ev£Ka 
£«rrt, Kai t to v (pavzptjjg ett wftAua o v r to v irorepa 
Tvyj]g Kai irorepa yvu)fir\g hpya Kplveig Jttt w v tt oX e- 
fjt, i to v ol (jlIv cnroXtoXaaiv, ol $e ^i£(j>vyov. — airkxavov kv 
rrf fiayj) r to v fikv o ttXit (o v Staicooioi, r to v o i tt~ 

TT £ UJ V TTZVTYllCOVTa* 

(b) Not only the superlative, but verbs also 
which contain the idea of a superlative, take the 
genitive. Such verbs are irptoTtvuv, apiarevuv, tcpa- 
tkttsvuv (to be the first, the most excellent), ap\ziv, 

jSaaiXeuftv, Kvpuvuv, rvpavvtveiv (to rule), zttigtcituv 

(to be at the head), i/yuaSat, arpaTYiyuv (to lead), 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 395 

KpaTuv, tTTiKpciTEiv, TTEpiylvevSai (to become master), 
riTTa(j%i (to be overcome, to be inferior), §ia<j>£puv, 
Siawptweiv (to surpass, to be distinguished), and 
the like. Also the adjectives eyKparrjg and aicpa- 
tt)q, as related in idea to the above named verbs, 
are joined with the genitive. 

Aarvayr)q M f} 8 to v rip^z. — 01 ' KXXrjveq EKparrjaav 
t w v (3apf5apcuv. — /ecu TOVQ %£OVq COCOVU) £ p (i) r o q WT- 
TCLG&ai. £ KUVOQ 7 U) V 7) X I K I li) T h) V £KpaTl(JT£VG£V. 

Xviry vTTtpfidXXei to a$iKUV t ov ao\/C£io£ai. — -au)(j>pov6g 
earl, kyKparn dvai y a a r p o q Kai a^poStfftwv /cat 
£7ri$'u|uiwv iraaCiv. 

Note 2. Some of these verbs besides this usual construction 
are capable also of other combinations. Thus Kpareiv in the sig- 
nification to overpower and to hold in general governs the accusa- 
tive ; e. g. Thucyd. 1. 109, Meyd(3a£oQ rove re Alyv7rriovQ Kal 
tovq avji}xdypvQ paxy wpdrnae. — Avdcraetv in the signification to 
command^ to order is joined with the dative, in the signification to 
be master or lord with the genitive ; e. g, Horn. II. i. 288, icdv- 
rwv fiey Kparieiv eSiXei, irdvreaai B* avdaaeiv. — 'HyeicrSai in the 
signification to lead, to be at the head takes the dative, and even 
apxjEiv and Kpartiv occur in connection with the dative when the 
idea of commanding rather than of having power predominates. 

(c) With the verbs ixzrkyziv, fxersari fioi, koivmvsTv (to 
have a part Or share), /u£raXauj3ai>av, avWafifiavuv, 
evvepyov eivai (to take a part or share), rvyyavuv, 

Xayyavuv, Kvpuv, /cXrjpovojuav (to get a part or share, 
to become partaker, to acquire), (.u-raSiSovai (to 
allow to partake), the thing wherein a share is 
possessed or given, stands in the genitive. 

O avzlpuyiroq ju£r£^£t rri q Seia q <j>v<r £ w £.- — S a X- 
it o v q Kai xpv^ovq Kai a i r 0) v Kai itotwv kcli 
7T ovojv Kai vttvov avayKrj (cart) Kal $ov\oiq fxera$i<$6- 
vau — qvWyiponai /c'ayw tovtov tov ttovov. — ju£- 



396 SYNTAX. 

TfcOTl jUOl TWV TT1Q TToXzwg TT p a y fl a T 0) V. £ 7T £ C Tf 

zvyrov a vj liut o g WvyjEg, azavarov Se xpv^ig, 
wetpio rrig \fjvyr\g aSavarov fivr)fir)v KaraXiiruv. — 7r p £ ir £ t 
roue irai&ae, toairep rr)g ov a lag, ovro) Kai Trig <jn- 
Xlag 7T a r p iky) c /cXrjoovo^iav. 

Note 3. As an exception it must be observed that Xay^dvtiv 
frequently and Tvyyaveiv in the sense to meet with, to find gene- 
rally takes the accusative. With K\r)povofjLeiv, when both a person 
and thing are named, the person from whom one inherits stands 
in the genitive, the thing in the accusative. 

(d) With verbs to touch (JnrTtaSai, \paveiv, Sry- 

yavuv) and to begin (apyjE<&ai) the object stands in 
the genitive. Also, generally every transitive 
verb, which takes the accusative of the object, is 
put with the genitive, when it is to be indicated 
that the action does not extend to the whole ob- 
ject but only to some particular part of it. This 
obtains the most frequently with the verbs to lay 
hold on, to seize, to take, to hit, &c. 

Ei rig v/iwv c> £ $ 1 a g (3ov\tTai ti} g k pr) g aipaazai, 
irpooiTG). — gvv TOig Seoiig ao^EcrScu yjprj tt a v t o g e pyov. 
— e$o)Ka croe r w v yp r\ p,aT it) v. — ol ttoXsliioi frf^uov 
r y\ g yr) g, — avTiXafitcrSe rwv ir p ay iiclt u) v. — r r) g 
y £ 1 p o g aye tov iraiSa. 

Note 4. In this manner it appears that the genitive should also 
be explained with the adverbs and verbs, which signify approach 
(see § 105. Note 3.) and with £x £0 "^ at m tne sense to adhere to, 
to border upon. 

'EX.£vo-i£ 'AS'^wj/ lyyvg Kelrai. — iroWaKig ol ttXt] a i ov 
dWrjXio v oIkovvteq elg tydpav Kadiaravrai. — irpwroi Xeyovrai ol 
KopivSwi iyyvrara tov vvv Tpoizov fiera^etpicrai rd 7repl 
Tag vavg. 

(e) With the verbs airoXavuv, ewavpzaSai (to en- 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 397 

joy), ovaaSai (to have profit or advantage), ye'uwSai 

(to taste), yeveiv (to give tO taste), eaSiuv, tyayuv (to 

eat), mvuv (to drink), the object enjoyed, &c. 
stands in the genitive. 

Nougat; SouAouc. tymffe r ifxr] g tXevZepiae.,— o avr\p 
ayc&OQ ovk au airoXavn tu>v tt}q apeTrfg Kapirw v.- — 
ri/irje Kai kukoq o)v 7roWaKig eytVGciTO. — ol trroanwrai 
za^iovai k pe u) v 07rrwv Kai mvavaiv oivo v. — 7roXXa 
Kai aya%a ryuyovro tio fiaaiXu Kai ovaa&ai t vj v tt a p o v 

T (l) v. 

Note 5. The verbs ecrSkiv and iriveiv govern the accusative of 
the object, when it is to be expressed, either that a person takes 
something constantly as his usual food, or that he consumes 
the whole supply and eats and drinks more than an ordinary 
quantity ; on the contrary, the genitive denotes that only part of 
the supply is taken ; e. g. to kiovelov meiv, to drink the poisoned cup 
(because it is entirely drunk off). — niveiv olvov and irieiv oirov, 
to drink wine (the former of one whose usual drink is wine, the 
latter to take a draught of wine.) — kaSieiv Kpia, to eat, live upon 
animal food. — haSieiv koe&v, to eat of animal food. — Also aVo- 
\avEiv requires the accusative, not when the object in which we 
find enjoyment but that which we enjoy from it is assigned and, 
if both are named, the object from which we have the enjoyment 
stands in the genitive and the thing enjoyed in the accusative ; 
e.g. t'l ct'AAo C^ov aly&v Kal 'I-ktvwv teal (3o(jJV kcli twp ciWiov £u>a>y 
roaavTO. a'ya^a dnoXavEi, oaa av$p(i)7roi ; 

(f ) With the Verbs fXifivr\<JKuv, avafxip.vr]<JKUv 9 /LLvri- 

fiovtvuv, juvrjfxrjv TroieiaSai (to remind, to mention), 
fii/j.vri^ai (to remember to recollect), and eiriXavSd- 
v£(t%i (to forget), the object stands in the genitive 
(because remembering and forgetting refer always 
to particular properties and circumstances only 
and therefore to parts of the whole). 



O/A 



a) v Kai irapovr (t)v Kai a it o v t to v ^juvr^ao, 



398 SYNTAX. 

—'KpvGavTav yjXtapyjia jiev ?JSr? ti/j,u) (1). orav $£ Kat 
aXXo ti ayaSov o Scoe. &w, ovSe tots, e it i\rj g o fxa 1 
avTOV, — aiayjpov egtl irapovTi ply Kaipuy pri ^orjcrSai, 

7T CLp e\% OVT O Q $E aVTOV jAZfXVT)GXai, 

Note 6. The accusative stands with E7rt\av$rdv£<T$at f when 
a single circumstance is adduced, which has been forgotten ; e.g. 
ap £tt£\4$ov ti &p e(3>ov\ov enrelv.—ln like manner it stands also 
with fivrjfjLOveveiv, dva\xijivi\(SK£iv and fiifiviiGKEcrSai to denote that 
mention is made not merely of single circumstances of an event, 
but either of a single circumstance in and by itself, or of the 
whole event ; e.g. fxyrijiopEvetv iroWd TvvTrap£\7]\v$6T(t)P 7r6p(tiP» 

(g) With the Verbs cttcoveiv, aKjOoacrSai, kKvuv, ttvv- 

SavtaSai (to hear, to learn), aia^av^ai (to perceive, 
to observe, to feel), awievai (to understand), 
o(T(j>paivE(j%ai (to smell), the object stands in the 
genitive. 

TI a v t o q paGiXevg a/coua. — ovte avTog tovto ttwttote 
2 (1) k p clt ov g 77/coucra, our aXXov ^clgkovtoq 
aicriKo£vairiG%6[JLriv. — kXve g t ev ay julljv t 10 v fftwv, — 
ov GvvriKav a X A r) X (o v. 

Note 7. The genitive is put with these verbs only of the 
object which produces the thing perceived or of an occurrence of 
which we perceive only single parts ; the thing perceived on the 
contrary stands in the accusative. Hence for the various con- 
struction of these verbs the following rules obtain; (1) if the 
person alone is named, this stands in the genitive ; (2) if both 
person and thing are named, the person stands in the genitive, 
and the thing in the accusative ; as e. g. tovto UwfcpaVovc i]Kovaa. 
— (3) If the thing alone is named, the question then is, whether 
this is conceived as a simple part which I comprehend with my 
senses, or as a compound whole of which single parts only are 
perceived ; in the first case the accusative stands, in the second 
the genitive; e.g. ojq rj(r$£T0 rd yiyvo\x£va. Xenoph. Cyrop. III. 
1. 4. — doTi yaSrinivoQ tov yeyeprj/jLevov, Ibid. V. 3. 20. — On the 
contrary, always ala$dp£(r$rai Kpavyfjg, Sopvfiov, &c. (because 



(1) I reward. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 399 

one can perceive only indications of the noise). In like manner, 
dicoveiv Siktiq to hear a suit. — cdaSdvEaSai £7n/3ov\r/£, to perceive 
a plot, — On the contrary, ^wievai ra Xeyofieva, to comprehend 
or understand what is said. 

Note 8. Hence the genitive sometimes occurs also with drnveiv 
(to obey), dv-nKovortiv and direiSeiv (to be disobedient), which 
otherwise usually take the dative. 

(h) With adverbs of place and time the sub- 
joined nearer definition stands in the genitive 
[because the adverb denotes a single point only, 
but the subjoined definition of place and time de- 
signates the whole]. 

Tiavrayov Trig yVG ^vprjaeig ayaSovg re kcli ttovtj- 
qovq. — ov% opag iv u KaKov (1) ; — ol ovv tio \aaovi 
linreig, O7roi acpiicovTO twv EAXijviowv ttoXccov, 
sv ralg TrXetVraic ctijuwvto.— iropfHi) rr\ g J] X i tc i a g, in 

advanced age. — o ipe rr\ g ^jtiloac, late in the day. — - 
TtjviKavTa tov irov g, at this season of the year. 

(i) In those cases also where the genitive is 
used alone to assign definitions of time, it must 
be explained as a genitive of the whole by a men- 
tal suppletion of the individual or particular part. 
Thus the Greeks make use of the genitive in as- 
signing time, (a) to the question when ? if a por- 
tion of time is mentioned in one or more moments 
of which something has taken place ; (|3) to the 
questions since when ? within what time ? 

Oi 7ro\tjHLOi airtyjt)pr)<jav vv kt 6 g. — r)§v fxlv (karX) 
S £ p o v g ipvyjuvriv £%£ tv, r/oN) &£ % £ i /x w v o c aXeeivrjv (2). 



(I) "va KaKov, where in misery, that is, in what depth of 
misery. — -(2) A substantive, like EcrSrjra or oroX//y, to be sup- 
plied. 

15 



400 SYNTAX. 

—TpiaKovTci r/ ytife p u> v (1) airo TavTtig Tr\g fifxepag air'tru), 
— ovStig £evoc a^i/crat ^povou a vy^v ov (2) c/cei^f v. 

3. With the verb uvai a genitive frequently 
occurs, which is to be explained in a two-fold 
manner : it denotes, namely (a) the whole, to 
which an object mentioned belongs as a part 
or member ; (b) the object, to which something 
must be conceived to belong, either as a posses- 
sion, or as a property, peculiarity, duty (where 
in English the substantives part, business, cus- 
tom, duty, character, &c. are supplied), or as a 
production and offspring. 

T ljv \a/Lif5 av 6v t b)V ugiv oi fxav&avovTtg, — oitrSa, 
oti tov Sclvcitov 7]jovvrai iravreg ol aXXoi r w v fx £ y i- 
<tt (t)v k a k (o v tivai.- — 7jv Kai o 2a>K£>an?e r to v aficpi 

MtX?JTOV GTpaT£VO[JL£V(jJV. CIVTOQ rjSfXf T U) V jU £- 

v 6v t to v tivai. 

ToUTO TO TT&IOV £OTi T O V /3 d <7 I X £ W Q. O KVh)V £GTl 

tov (j>i\ov. — kavTov uvai, to be his own master, 

av^pog SGTiv ayaSov £v 7roiuv Tovg <f)iXovg, — avor\~ 

T (i) V £GTl (pXvaOHV. K CI K. O V p y O V \kkv £GTl (3) Kpi" 

*7fvr airo^avziv, GTpaTrjyov o£ jULayo/uievov toiq 7roA£- 
filoiQ) — fxkyiGTOv (x\v Kai Seov (4) /ulovov to avafxapTY]- 
tov* yzwaiuv (5) c;£ (tern) /uletcl to a/xapTrffxa wg 
TayiGTci avtvzyicuv. — "ir a t po g juev S17 XeysTai o Kupoe. 
yev£G%ai Ka \i j3 v g ov (6), fir]T p 6 g $e OLioXoyeiTai, 
MavSavrjc. *y£V£«rSai. — A 10 g uvai KopivSov KopivZioi 
01 7roXXot fXsyov. 

(1) Within. — (2) For. — (3) It is proper for the villain. — (4) 
An attribute of the Deity. — (5) It becomes the noble. — (G) 
By the father's side Cyrus is said to have been descended from 
Cambyses. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 401 

4. Words, which in themselves contain no com- 
plete idea, take the substantive, added to supply 
the sense, in the genitive. Such are : (a) words 
implying abundance or deficiency. 

Ei Tivog art kv^eicr^ai So/carf, "rrpog kiA Xs-yers. to 
£ oSUiv 7roXXa 6 p y 7] g Kal cr/cXriporrjTOC £fnrnr\ri(n. — 
eopTag icoivr} iiyov, elpii v t] g ^e Kai sv<j) poavvr\g rcav ra 
7rXea riv. — rw a. p z.ti] g kpi]fjno 0j ^ «XXo KaXwg e X Elv 
ovdev TpoaiiKci. — X oywv tnropuTt. — r w v oot/cwv /ca- 
Sapau 7roii]&aT£ ri\v ttoXiv. 

(b) With the expressions worthy, or unworthy, to 

be worth, to deserve (a£iog, ava'iiog, avra&og, a£iovv 9 

a&ovffSai) the object whereof one is worthy, &c. 
stands in the genitive. 

EiridEiKvvrii) rig rotg apyofikvoig kavrov It^iov a p )(/; C, 
atyopov ceucvvg Kai 7rpo<Jb)TTOv /cat \oyovg.- — eyio fizv 
kcli ae Kai ifiavrriv r a> v kciWl&twv ij&'aiKa. — o Kvpog 
z&v'iCzto irav to GTpaTEVfia a^uog t to v KaXojg tt£7toi>7- 

jU, £ V (x> V . 

(c) The expressions experienced, skilled, ac- 
quainted, inexperienced, unskilled, unacquainted, and 
all adjectives denoting a capability, fitness, apti- 
tude, of or for a particular action (the adjectives 
derived from verbs, chiefly with the termination 
iKog), take the genitive of that, in which one is 
experienced or for which one is adapted. 

l£(j<)KpaTriq e^i^aGKe jusypic otov ceoi zf.nrEipov uvai 

£ k a gt v 7T p a y jj, aT o g tov opXojg irZTraimvfizvov. 

rag Ttyvag .[laSriGSi 7rapa twv kTri<JT7)f.i6v(i)V zKaGTrj g 
tiov Tzyi'wv. — ovk av koX wc fiayono o r Co v "foXe/ui-? 

D d 



402 SYNTAX. 

K U) V aV£7Tt(ir?fyUWV. iOGlTZp El Tig aftUpOg WV S I \f> V Q 

rov 7Ti£iv ovk av airoXavoi, ovtio Kai o hirupog wv £ p 10- 

T O Q UTTUpOQ EGTl T It) V 7} C I G T U) V a(j>pOClGl(i) V* — ~ 

KaKovpyog ptv tiov aXX to v, caurovSe 7roXu KUKovp- 
yoTEpog tern. — c\'oW/C£ rwv <j>iXo)v ra ^tripartita. — rov 
Grparriyov uvai y^pvt iropiGriKov r w v £ 7r t t rj S £ i w v 
roig arpciTiioTaig. — r o v ttclvtwv i)$ lg t o v a kovg fxa~ 
r og, e 7r a iv ov Gavr^g, avrjKoog a, Kat row iravrwv 
fjSiGTOv S £ a fxa r o g a^Searog' ov&v yap 7TW7ror£ 
GtavTrjg epyov KaXov re^liaGai. 



Note 9. Hence also the verb TceipaaSai to try, (that is, to be- 
come experienced or to endeavour to become experienced) is 
joined with the genitive ; e. g. 7reipa(7$ai rov fiaSeog, to try to 
find out the depth. — TretpaaSaL yjopiov, to attempt a place. — tte- 
Tveipaf.iivov elvai tlpoq, to be experienced in a thing. 

(d) Verbs to charge, to accuse, to sue, to inform 
or enter an action against (ainaG^ai, Siw/cav, uGayuv, 
virayuv, ypafyzG^aC), to sentence, to condemn (Si/ca&iv, 
Kp'ivuv), to be convicted (aXwvm), to acquit {atydvai, 
airoXmiv, £Xa>%)ovv), take the crime or even the 
punishment of the crime in the genitive [as sup- 
plemental to the substantives, transgression, crime, 
punishment, understood]. 

Ypa§o\xai ere <j>6v o v. — Siuklo rov Sewa k X o ir r) g. — 
' Ava%ay6pag aGefieiag zKp'&ri. — o plv Savarov 
eKpl^rj, o $£ a^fSrj r Co v k y kXii jma. r (*) v. — Ava^iXaog 
virayofXEVog % av ar ov ev Aa/cfSat^ovi Bia rrjv Bv£avrtou 

7Tp6$OGW, a7TE(j)VyEV. 

(e) With the verbs to buy (wvekt&u, ayopdluv, 

wpiaG^lai, KTaG%ai, TvapaXap,fiavuv), to sell (jrtoXuv, airo- 

SiSoG^ai), to offer for sale (irioXeiv), to value (jtjuav, 
Tu*aG%i), the definition of the price stands in the 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 403 

genitive [because a general idea, as xw a > or 
Trpayfxa, is to be understood]. 

Ot Opaiceg uvovvrai Tag yvvaiKag irapa tujv yovtwv 
\pv fxar u)v 71 o X X a> v. — r w v tt 6 v u) v ttu>\ovgw rjpiv 
iravTa rayaSa ot Seoi. — Nt/ciae o Nt/crjoarou Xlyerat <$ov- 
Xov Trpia<T%cu r aX avr ov. — ol twv iKavcoraroJV /cat fu 
Kal KaKwg TTOiziv \6yoi ovroi Kai juaXiara evdvovrai raig 
\pvyaig Th)v cikovovtojv' Kal Swpa r)v Si^waiv oi rotou- 
roe, Kav puu) Tvyyavy bvra 17 ra irapa rwv o/xotwv, opwg 
pzl'Covog avra rifxwvTai oi \apf3avovTtg. 

Note 10. On account of the similarity of idea verbs also of 
exchanging bartering take the object given in exchange in the 
genitive, [although the genitive does not admit of the same ex- 
planation here as with the verbs above adduced]. 

IIoAAot t&v lv MapctS'aivi fiayeaajiivtiiv 'EW^wi/ rrjv TeXevryji' 
ri}g tov fiiov ai<r\vvr)Q ifk\d£,avTO. — tciq fiojpeaQ rw v ^wptwi' 
a/jieifiecrdai ovk ktrrt (biXojv.—Tuiv iraidvv EVTV\iav pyrrjp \pv%i)g 
ay dXXd^airo, ov %pv<rov \ibvov* 

II. Relation of essential connection as dissolving. 

5. With ideas of extricating, of being released, 
of parting, separating, removing, freeing, desisting, 
ceasing, departing, receding, differing from, erring 
from, depriving, emptying, the object from which 
one is extricated, &c. stands in the genitive. 

Tvpavvti)v ri\£v%£pil)%ii<jav oi AS^vatot. — prj atyuao 
ye t ov avcpog. — oi Teppavoi piKpov k^aWarrovai r ov 
Ksatikou tyv\o v. — v o a ov ttjvo airaWci^u) y%6va* 
— iravaai ovv r ov r a) v. — oV EXXr?vfe rovg Ylepaag iip^av 
tyj g z a\aa <j r] g. — TroXXot rjSij y v w p. r\ g rjpaprov, 
— V7ra"y£^ v/tuig Trig o$ov. — ot vzwrspoi twv AaK^at- 
poviwv Toig TrptafSvTtpoig avvTvyyavovrzg ukovgi t r) g 

D d 2 



404 SYNTAX. - 

o So v. — Moi3cai Gajuwpiv ziravGav a o i c> rj q. — o! hiTicra- 
ILizvoi roiq ceivoig re Kai ziriKiv^vvoig kclXcoq j^prjvQai av~ 
cazioi zlgiv, 01 Se SiajuapravovTZc, r o v t u) v ShXoL — TO. 
ciKaia cei irpajTUv Kai r to v aS i k h) v aTTEyta^ai. — ot 
ttXovgioi piya $ia<j>£pov<Ji tu)V ttzvi'itwv. 

6. The material, of which any thing is formed, 
is designated in Greek by the genitive. 

Ta ayaXjaara v, % a X k o v ttcTtoivtcii, r) Xidov, rf 

y^ Q V G O V, X l 3 O V ZGTgWfAZVri EGTLV 7] O&Or.' GTECJjdVOC; 

v a k ivSio v. — Ovpai tyoiviKoq 7re7roi7]jLievai. — 7] KprjTrig 

£GTl X 13 IOV f.1 E y aX Is) V, 

Note 11. In many cases the dative can be used here inter- 
changeably with the genitive, for the material from which any 
thing is made may at the same be considered as the means by 
which one makes it. e. g. XiSov icrrpwfiivri 1) odog, the road is 
paved of stone ; on the contrary, \i$<p I. ?/ o., the road is paved 
with stone. Comp. § 106. 1. a. 

Note 12. The genitive also, with the verbs to smell, to scent, 
to taste, which denotes the substance whereof any thing smells or 
tastes, must be explained as a designation of the material ; e. g* 
o^etv or 7rpocftdXXeiv jivpov. — tcpofiviov o^eiv. 



§ 109. (107.) 

GENITIVE FOR THE DESIGNATION OF THE 
REASON OR CAUSE. 

To designate the cause or motive by which an 
action or state is occasioned, the Greeks use the 
genitive in the following cases : 

1 . When, with an action that refers to an object^ 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 405 

mention is also made of some particular circum- 
stance or some peculiarity of the object, by which 
the action is occasioned, this occasioning circum- 
stance or peculiarity stands in the genitive. In 
English such genitive is rendered by on account of, 
for, with regard to, in respect of 

EvSat/xwv juoi o avrip e^alvsTO kgi rov t p o tt o v Kai 
r (i) v A o y <i) v. — r ov ir aS o v q oiKTEipio <te. — aiTio)VTai 
a\Xr}\ovg rov y e y e vtj j* i v o v. 

Note 1. The Greeks also often use this construction, when a 
complete event is assigned as the motive to an action, putting 
the article rov in combination with the infinitive of the verb which 
expresses the motive. 

MtVtog to XrjffriKov KaSrjpEi ek rrjg SaXdcrGrjg rov rag Ttpogo^ovc 
fxaXXop ievai (1) avT7(o. — rov fit) Cia(p£vyeii> rov Xaywj/ etc rtiv 3lk- 
tviov aico7rovQ rov yiyvofJ-ivov K<x§i(TTr}Q. — ol riov fiaaCheiov kv rrj 
'Ada. oIvo\6ol, tir£L()av Ev^LduJai ri)v (pidXyv, dpvcravrEg air avrrjg 
rw KvaS'w, Etg rijv dptcrrepdy \tlpa ey^dfievoL Karappocpovai, rov (2) 
<)}), el (f)dpfiaKa kyyioitv, ju>) XvctiteXeiv avrdlg. 

Note 2. Also in interjections, expressive of wonder, abhor- 
rence, pain and the like, the cause of the feeling is subjoined in 
the genitive. 

<&exj rov dv0pog\ — 10 Zev fiaffiXev, ry g Xeirrorrirog ruiv 
(ppsvdj v ! — o'lfioi r w v k fiui v /ca/cwv! 

2. With intransitive verbs the genitive is added 
of the object to which the state expressed in the 
verb refers. This occurs chiefly with iy^iv (to be 
circumstanced) accompanied by adverbs and with 
rj/cuv (to be come, to be become), but also with 
other intransitive expressions, whose nearer re- 
ference is to be subjoined by a substantive. 



(1) rov ieVcu, on account of the coming in, that is, that they 
might oome in. — (2) rov p) XvciteXe'lv abrolg, that it may bring 
no advantage to them. 



406 SYNTAX. 

Nvv ettsiS?) ov^ ovrio r p 6 it o v fxovov zyzig, aXXa Kal 
aWovg dvaKTaa^ai ^vvaaai, ovg Kaipog tit], rJSij Kal oiKiag 

<j£ rvyziv d£iu). Xenoph. Cyrop. VII. 5. 56. — J>c 
rd^ovg (1) zkckttos el^v. — Xenoph. Hellen. IV. 

5. 15. — Tr)g re yap 'IraXiag Kal ^iKeXiag Ka\ug it a pa- 
ttXov (2) /corai (r? KzpKvpa) Thuc. I. 36. — zv riKuv 

y kv ov g, to be of good extraction. — *5 x\kuv r ov 
/3 1 o v, to have a happy life. 

3. With verbs to envy, to admire, to esteem happy, 
to be angry at, the object for which one envies, 
&c. stands in the genitive. 

Ov fxzyaipu) r o u & e aoi 8 u> pr) par o g. — r rj g a p- 
^ r) g ov (pSlovovfiev roig fiaGiXzvai. — £rjAu> az rov it X o v- 
tov.< — eyu) vfiag tyri/M SiKalwg av, w v f/xoi ^aX£7ra(V£re, 
tovtwv roig rjeoig yjipiv u^Lvai wg ayaSwv. 



Note 3. The verbs %avfia£etv and ayaaSdt (to admire) often 
take also the genitive of the person, namely when the admiration 
is not excited by the person himself and his whole character, but 
by an indication, action, or generally by an individual circumstance 
evinced in the person ; e. g. ^avjxd^io tuv orparr/yw v, on ov Treip^v- 
rai rjfilv iiCTropl^ety mTr\piawv . — aya/xal crov, cloti ovk apyvpiov icat 
ygvaiov irpoeiXov Srjo-avpovs KsRfr}&$ai fj.a\\ov f y aotyiag. — Hence 
with these verbs the person must always stand in the genitive, 
when the particular circumstance exciting the admiration is 
expressly assigned ; e. g. tovto §av}id'(io gov, this I wonder at 
in thee. 

4. With verbs to care for, take care of, to be 
concerned or interested for, to neglect, to make light 
of, to despise, to spare, the object stands in the ge- 
nitive (as the cause of the state expressed in the 
verb). 



(1) As each was circumstanced with respect to swiftness, that 
is, as quickly as each was able. — (2) Corcyra is favourably si- 
tuated for the passage to Italy and Sicily. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 407 

Ol Trarepeg irpovoovai r to v iraiSw v. — £ avrow rot 
KijderaL o 7roovotov ad z\<j>o v. — ovk av tcaXug 7rparrotjUi, 
u t o v t d) v dfizXCov ti)v e/a^v rjcovriv zepairwuv co/cotr/v. 
— ot £V rw THyjti KareyeXitjv r r} g iroXiopKLa g. — ti 
yap KaTtvorjaag fit rj ttovov rivog atroGTavTa, rj k ivd v- 
vov (j)£iaa/jLs.vov ; — ovk oXrywpsiv ^/pr? rovg 7roXtr£uo^i£- 
vovg T(ov koivCov, ovd airoXaveiv wg ibiwv, a/uzXuv 
$£ wg a X X o r p 1 w v, aXXa /cricWSai ^i£v tog o 1 k £ i 10 v, 

a7T£^£CrSai &£ WGTTSp §« TWl> fJ.Y}dlv 7TpOGr]KOVTb)V. 

5. Verbs which denote sensual appetite or violent 

desire, as fTTiSu/iav, £<j>i£(rSai,op£*yE<T0a£, kpav, dixpyv, tthvtjv 

govern the genitive of the object, to which the 
desire is directed, (as the cause of the desire). 

Tr) g k aXXia r r\ g a p e r rj c Kai fizy iff r r\ g £<£t£- 
<rcu t ky^v t) g. — jut) jney aX u) v del eTTi^vj^elv irapa to 

SlKaiOV, TTSlVtoHJl T OV £ 7T a I V O V OV^ 7]TTOV £Vlttl TlOV 

<j)VffeU)V, 17 aXXai T (0 V <F IT 0)V T£ Kai 7T O T (s) V. Kai 

avye doKeig epav r rj g ir aid 6 g. 

6. With comparatives the object to which the 
comparison is made, when by the addition of a 
comparative particle it should stand in the nomi- 
native, takes the genitive without a comparative 
particle (because upon the quality of this object 
is founded the greater or lesser apparent degree, 
in which the property is possessed by the other). 

O TTUTrip GVVSTOJTtpOQ kffTl T OV 7T a I d 6 g. SjiiOl /LltV 

doKU ovTog eri wovr^porepog elvai E/citvo v. — o didaffKa- 
Xog GO(j)WT£pog eoti r ov juaSrjrov. 

Note 4. Even in improper comparisons, where two objects are 
not immediately compared themselves, but only a property or 



408 SYNTAX. 

something belonging to each, the Greeks often put merely the 
genitive of the object. 

f O 7rpe(rpvT£poQ TrXetoPdiv^caTu to elKogefnreipog ian rov v e to- 
TEpov. — ' ' Apiard^-qg Epya XafiTrpoTEpa ETrE^d^aro rov 'AXki« 
fjiddov (1). — 7r\£iii>v (iori) %p6voe, or fie! fi dpicrKsiv role Kara/, 
t6>v h$d()£ (2). Sophocl. Antig. 74 f. 

Note 5. Words also, like 7roXXa7rXd(riog, irspirrog, &c. which 
contain an idea corresponding to a comparative, partake in the 
given construction of comparatives. 

Ol }1EV Tt\eT(TT0L T(j)V avSpwiriOV, ETTEL^dv TUJV dpKOVVTTMV 

TTEpiTrd Krij&wvrai, rd liev civtujv KaropvTrovcri, ra ce KaTa(ri]Trovcri, 
ra ce apL-j^iovvTEQ, kul ixErpovvTEg, /ecu MJ-avTEQ Trpayuara e^ovgi 
b d£ K.vpog, a av "icr) TrEplrrd ovra r dv avrw dpKovvru) v, rov- 
rotg rag kvCeiac, rCdv (biXojy e^ukeIto. — TroXXaTrXacriovg v^wy 
a v r ui v EviKavE crvv rdlg $£o~ig. 

Note 6. Also verbs which imply the idea of comparison take 
the genitive of the object, similarly to those containing a super- 
lative idea ; see 5) 108. 2. b. 



§110. 

PREPOSITIONS COMBINED WITH THE GENITIVE. 

In general the prepositions combined with a 
genitive denote the relation of proceeding from 
something, either locally, as partition, remotion, 
separation, or causally, as origination by, descent 
from some one. Yet it must not be overlooked 
that several of these prepositions are also used 
with the genitive partly to designate collateral 



(1) For tGv Epyuiv too WXk. — (2) For rovrov rov yjxjvov, or 
hti f-i doi&KEiv rolg EvS'dcE, where the brevity of poetry intimates 
rather than actually expresses the thought. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 409 

existence in a state of rest, and partly to assign 
direction and motion towards a particular point, 
where we therefore might have expected them 
in combination with the dative or accusative. 
These prepositions are as follow : 

(1) Connected with the genitive alone. 

'Avrl, instead of, for. 

HacriXtvQ avri p.vpiwv kari arparuor a. — ovk. oioa, cn'S 
wv iroXXol f}ju,ag jjugovgi. — ZeOc, orav flovXyrai, SovXov 
<j£ iroir}(JU avri fiaaiXLuq. — av£ wv? On which account, 

for which reason.— av% Ivoq, one with another. 

'Awo, (a) of place ; from, (b) of time ; from, 
since, (c) to assign the origin or cause : from : on 
account of by, by means of by virtue of out of, 
from, for. 

A<£' 'iinrii)v zjiayLaavro ol Au&ot.— cnro caVvou yevojus- 
vol ra rov adjfiaroq i^(SKr\aav. — izapaivovai ravra ot airo 
HXarojvoq (1). — ovroi p.lv ovk aty avrtjv (2) ravra irpar- 
rovaiv, a\\ air av^poov erepojv. — ^av/bia'Cov rov Ejcyio- 
yevr) citto rr]Q (j>iXo<JO(f>iaq. — «tto rovrov rov -vpovov avro- 
vo/iol uciv airo Qvfijua^iag. — raparrzi avrovg o airo rwv 
iroXz/muov (pofioq. — airo Sikcuogvvtiq, Out of a love of 

justice.— d(f> zoiTzpaQ, with the commencement of 
evening. — o aVo r^q orparnyiaq, an ex-general. 

'Ek, before a vowel e$, (a) of place : out of ; from, 
forth from, away from, (b) of time ;' from, since, 
after, (c) of origin and cause ; from, by, on account 
of, in consequence of, according to. 



(1) The sect founded by Plato— the Platonists.— (2) Of their 
own impulse. 



410 SYNTAX. 

Tavra Biairpa^a/iiEvog ek Trig iroXewg waXiv airr]u.—£K 
Trig Svaiag yzvojizvog cnr&lavev.' — iroiu, to tekvov, tcl c/c 
TraTpog TTpogTaySzvTa, — kvTav^a $r) o Kvpog tyLXaazv £/c 

twv 7rp6o%ev ^a/cpuwv. — Frequently zk paraphrases 
adverbial expressions, as e. g, £$ awpocrSoKriTov, un- 
expectedly. — l/c tov (Kjxtvovg, unawares. 

'YLveica, ievekev, poet. av£Aco y uvzkzv, on account of, 
for the sake of by means of by virtue of. 

JLXevng c vsKa eiroXeiAriffav ol JLWrfveg wpog Tovg Tpioag. 

\6yov Ivtica, for the sake merely of saying some- 
thing.— £V£Ka ye tovtov, as far as relates to this. . 

Up6, before (of place, time and preference) ; for, 
for the good or interest of instead of 

TavTa 7rpb Tr)g YlsHnarparov i]XiKiag eyhzTO. — ovSeig 
ovTwg avoriTog zgtiv, oaTig ttoXeijiov irpo uprivrig aipurau 
— -ovte £*yw apKtGU) vfuv irpaTTit)v irpo vfxojv, ovtb v/jizig ivpo 

yjjuwv. — irpo 7roXXov iroiuaSai, to esteem above much, 
to hold in very high esteem. 

Note 1. Many adverbs also are combined with the genitive, 
and in this combination are to be considered as prepositions, thus 
avev, arep, <^'x a > without, filter] v, after the manner of, eyyvg, ttXtj* 
awv, near to, evdv, directly at or to, kvtaiziov, before, /isra^v, be- 
tween, during, fiexP 1 ( e )> &XP L (-)' U P t°> ^°» ntpa, iripav, beyond, 
TrXrjp, yjjjp'iQ, except, ycipiv, on account of 

(2) Connected with the genitive and accusa- 
tive. 

Aia, through, (of space and time); through, by, 
by means of (of cause and means). 

To iy\og r{X% $ia rou Swpa/coc e — ttovov wapuye Toig 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 411 

TroXe/iiioig $i rjjUtpac. — ravra ov irapa rtov Stwv k^o/tev, 
aAXa Si aXXrjXouv ityuv yzyovtv. — £ia Ttov ljtiov kv tyj 
vvkti avayKij /uaWov 7] Sia Ttov offiaKfxtov %Kaara /cat ai- 
cxSavctxSat /cat 7rparrav. — §ia ttoXXov yjpovov, after a long 

time. — cia ttevte £rwv, every fifth year. — Zi oXlyov 
uvaiy to be at a little distance.— <$ia rk\ovq, to the end. 
§ia \zipoQ zyziv, to have in hand. — ha <j)6fiov uvai, to 
be quite afraid. — $i iySpag yiyvtaSal nvi, to be at en- 
mity With any one. — Sta fxayjqq, $ia y\waar)q dvai rivl, 

to combat, to speak ivith any one. 

Kara, down from, down, down over, down upon, 
upon, over ; down, below, under ; against, at. 

EXapfro avTy ra caicpva Kara rwv irapuuv* — rj ^vyji 
<j>yzro Kara ySovoq. — ov ^vva/aal 7rw, w ^uKpareq, toq av 
ZjiTUQjfxiav apETrjv Xaj3av Kara iravrwv (I).— -ot ocrrai Kara 
rov KpvcTTaWov iropevofievoi Siafiatvovai Tovq TToraf-iovq. — 

Kara gkottov to&vuv, to shoot at a mark (because the 
arrow, proceeding in a curve, descends to the 
mark). 

*Y7r£p ? over, above ;for, on account of in behalf of, 
instead of 

O 7]\lOQ TTOpWBTai VTTBp l]flU)V . CLV aXXo£ VjACLQ 

aciKy, rifjiuq who v/ntov jjiayovfi&a. — ei ra 7rapa croi tcaXwq 
£\£(, %appu virlp kicuviiiv. — tivai virkp rivoq, to be to any 

one's advantage— vnlp rov Xaj3av, in order to obtain. 

(3) Connected with the genitive, dative and 
accusative : 



(1) I cannot find one virtue (which pervades all) in all. 
1 



412 SYNTAX. 

3 A/n(pi, about ; on account of ; concerning, of, as 

with the dative ; e. g. afi<fi ttoXzwq fiayjia^ai. — livzfiak- 
Xzto KaXov au^uv af.16 ' Apeog ^tXorrjroc. 

TLtpi, (1) about, around. — (2) concerning, that is, 
(a) with regard to, with respect to, of; (b) on account 
of for the sake of, about, for. — (3) above, more than. 

Gif^fe) -yrjc tteoi rr}G$£ /Lta^wjiiE^a Kai 7repi 7raiowv.— irepi 
ava^!r]jnaT(jJV roaavra upr)G%(i>. — irepl \pvyjov rwv vfxeTspwv 
o aywy (eari), Kai irepi yrjQ, Kai irepi oitcwv, Kai wept yv- 
vaiKwv Tc Kai tekvwv, Kai irzpi iravrwv ayazwv. — ii?air)KEQ 
nepi iravTUiv tcWsc; av^pwv vi]a So?7V kvi 7rovr(o kXavvefiev 

(1). — Trspl ttoXXou ??yao-Sat or iroiuaSai, to esteem highly. 
— tu Kepi nvoq, any ones condition, state, circum- 
stances. 

'Etti, upon, on, at, by, near ; in the time of, during ; 
among, with, (to designate accompanying circum- 
stances or conditioning causes) ; of, concerning, 
(de). 

iLtoKparriQ Zvwv fyavzaoq tjv ttoWukiq fMV o'ikoi, 7roXAct- 

KiQ §£ £77 £ T(*)V KOlVbJV TY)Q TToXsiOQ j3(x)fl(jJV . ' A^i]VaiOl BIT I 

jusv Tle\a<jyii)u eyovTwv rr\v vvv EXXa^a icaXtofievriv £&av 
JJzXavyoi, ovvofiaZ,6jizvoi Kpavcuoi* ewi Se KzKpo7roQ j3a<7i- 
Xi]og £TT£K\7]%r}<jav KzKp07r'i$ai. — Xiyuv zir'i tivoq, to speak 

of one (properly, tarrying with one).— ovofxal^ai 
or (jvojma i\uv kiri tivoq, to be named after or from any 
one. — oi h$ vinbjv, our cotemporaries. — zlvai eiri tivoq 
to be set over a thing. — rj eV 'AvroX/c/Sov upnvr), the 
peace negotiated by Antalcidas. 

(1) Epic for iKa.vvz.iv. 



USE OF THE GENITIVE. 413 

Note 2. In the signification to, eni is used interchangeably 
with the genitive and accusative, but never with the genitive ex- 
cept when a definite point is assigned to which one actually 
arrives or will arrive ; e. g. aTro^bypeiv- ett olkov, to go back home ; 
on the contrary, aVo^wpfTv £7r' oIkov, to depart for or towards 
home. 

Rapa, with Epic writers and the poets : by, 
near, at (as in combination with the dative) ; with 
the Attics : of, from (to denote that something 
proceeds from the immediate vicinity, or from the 
property or means of any one.) 

''Ey^sro $£ Zewc ^IStjc. ev Kopv(jnjfffi irapa y^pvao^povov 
'Hm?c. Hom. II. 15. 4 f. — zpaSov ravra Trapa aov. — 

wap eavrov SiSovai, to give out of his own property. 

Up6g, (a) to, towards, in a direction towards, (b) 
of, on the side of , from, by, by means of. (c) for,, 
for the advantage of. 

To TTOoo. tu)v &ata£aifxovi(i)v ttolov^vov ^avfiarog zgtiv 
ct£tov.— "7rooe tvog apyEG^ai kclXXkjtov. — eXev^epog sgti 
ttooc. rrarpog icai 7rpog fJ-rfrpog. — ro cfoot/cfVai wpog avopog 
kariv (1) ov^lv vyilg tipyaafiivov. — ovk r\v irpog tov 
Kupov rpoTTOVf e\ovra jult] awocicovai. — etyzr) ttoXXcl Trpog 
eavrov (2) te /cat /car' ekuvwv ^lairpa^afx^vog. — o n %i- 
KaioTarov kcli irpog zeojv /cat irpog avzpwirwv (3) roirro 
7roa$w.— SitjSatvov Kara rr,v ^reprjv rwv yztyvpkuiv Tijv irpog 
tov ttovtov. — £t7T£ fioi irpog Steeuv (4), tl jj.01 opyi^rj ', — aval 

irpog rivog signifies 1 . to belong to or be suitable for 
any one, to correspond with the nature or character of 



(1) Is the part of a man. — (2) To his own advantage. — (3) 
In the estimation of Gods and men. — (4) By the Gods! for 
God's sake. 



414 SYNTAX. 

any one ; 2. to stand on the side of any one ; 3. to con- 
duce to the advantage of any one. 

Me™, withy together with ; with, by. 

Kparrov cart fitT oXt.yu)v dyaScov ttqoq airavraq rovq 
KO.KOVQ, 7] juera 7roW(i)v kciku)v 7rpoc; oXlyovq ayc&ovQ fia- 
yjaxai. — AytjmXaog av^piav ye to ttXeov fisr' mfiovXiaq, 

f) jHETCL KIV$VV(*)V £7T£§UKVVTO. 

f Y7ro, under, beneath (sub) ; by ; out of of from, 
for. 

Ytto y^wv (rpzpcaXiov kovafiiZs 7ro^(t)v avSpwv tc Kai 

'iWTTMV. V7TO f.lO.(TTiy(i)V WQVGGOV Ol §Ol)\oi. YXaVKOg, O 

^lavcpov vloq, v(j> i7T7T6)v KarefiptoSt], — evioi (jiofiovptvoi 
fj.rj Xt}<j)Z£VT£Q airo%av(x)<Ji 9 TTpoairo^vrjcTKOVcnv vtto tov 



§ 110 b . (109.) 

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF THE 
OBLIQUE CASES. 

1. Verbs compounded with prepositions fre- 
quently receive a new, simple signification (e. gv 
typovuv, KaTa<j>povHv), and then take that case which 
such signification requires. But if the preposition 
can be separated from the verb and joined to the 
noun without any alteration of the sense, the 
compound verb takes that case which is governed 
by the preposition in this signification, 



OBS. ON THE USE OF THE OBLIQUE CASES. 415 

Twv irovtov yjctiyxaTa avrnrapfytTe (1). — Travreg 
aiTETry$ii)v apjuurwv. — ot 7roA^uioi £%ri\zovTr)g 7T o- 
X c to g. — ol Botwrot avv^ayiaavro t ol g Yl £ X o 7r o v- 
vt) a io i g. — cvopw -y a p v fxiv ovy^ o\o i g kaofxhvoig 
(2) ttoXe^uhv Hlp£$. — avafiaivto tov 'ittttov. — irape- 
GKtvaoavTO /cat ana /cat Trora, /cat t ely^o g Egr)£avTO (3). 
— ot avorjToi 7r o X X a c /cat jU£*yaXac £vju0ooac 

Ug-KITTTOVGI. 

Note 1. When perspicuity or emphasis requires it, the preposi- 
tion compounded with the verb is repeated before the noun. 

2. Verbal adjectives in tc'oc, rea, teov, always 
take the person in the dative, but the thing in 
that case which is required by the verb from 
which they are derived. 

Etorjv?7C £7rtSujU77Tfov tcrrtv a vSowtto i c. — cVc- 
v£tp>jT£OV v fxiv £oti Tto £ p y to. — ut£ rovg Stovg iXstog 

£lVat <TOl j3ouXft, Z£pa7T£VTEOV rovg SfOU?' eite a* TTO 

j3oa7CTjjuaTa>v ot£t Sav TrXovrt&ffSat, Tto v po <x Kr) \lo\t to v 
£7rt/itXi]T£ov' Eir£ v7ro <j)l\tov tSsXae a < ya7ra<r9 f at, rovg $ t- 

X O U C EVEpJETrjTEOV. 

Note 2. If the adjective takes an accusative of the thing, 
then the thing as the subject can be put in the nominative and 
the adjective added in the same gender, number and case. 

Consequently, instead of ; $£pa.7C£VT£ov ooi iart rovg $£ovg> we 
can also say, 

$epa7T£vr£oi aoi elaiv ol Seoi. 
instead of: rovg fiXovg ehepyerririov 

ol (plXoL Evepyerrjriot. 
instead of: ojyeXrjriov vfuv ecttl rr\v ttoXiv 
(b^eXrjria v^uv kariv r/ iroXig. 



(1) Instead of undertaking labour you give money. — (2) That 
you will not be able. — (3) And brought it into the fortress. 



410 SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE VERB ACCORDING TO ALL ITS PARTS, 

A. Kinds of the Verb. 

§ 111. 

In the doctrine concerning the use of the oblique 
cases, the peculiarities of the simplest form of the 
verb, the active, have been sufficiently deter- 
mined. It yet remains for us here, therefore, to 
explain the use and peculiarity of the two other 
kinds, the passive and the middle. 



§112. 
PASSIVE. 



1. The active verb expresses an action of the 
subject which is directed to a certain object. 
The passive, on the contrary, represents the ob- 
ject, to which the action expressed by the active 
is directed, as something suffering. 

2. Consequently that noun which in the active 
stood as proximate object in the accusative, must 



KINDS OF VERBS— PASSIVE. 417 

in the passive stand as subject in the nominative. 
But the subject of the active now becomes an 
object, from which another suffers something, 
and is therefore added by means of certain pre- 
positions, usually by v7ro with the genitive. 

'EfCTtoO KTZlVSTCll V7TO TOV ' AyjiWsWQ (OY O A^tXXsuC 

Krdvu tov "'E/cropa). — cVaS?] (fyw) avzirziG%Y)v vtto tov 
Anavpiov £(j> vfiag GTpaTEvzcrSlai, ug iravra kiv^vvov tjXSov. 
— 01 Tlkpvai £viKri%7](jav vtto Td)v EXX/jvwv. — 01 ayaSoi fxi- 
Govyrai vtto rwv Kafcwv. 

3. Instead of vtto the Greeks also frequently 
use the prepositions -rrpog and wapa, both with the 
genitive, namely irpog to designate an independent 
operation or a vigorous exertion of power, but 
napa, to signify that something proceeds from 
the immediate vicinage, or from the internal or 
external means of an object. 

To irpog tu)v AaKzdaifioviwv iroiovfizvov zavjuarog sgtiv 
a%iov. — oi f/ EAXrjv£C 7roXXa ri^iKifiriGav irpog to)v Tltp- 

GtoV. ol aV%p(i)7T0l TTpOQ TWV TToStoV KlVOVVTCtl. EL Kdl 

tovto aiTh)v rj^iKovv, tovt av irapd gov eiricEiKVVGZh). — 
i]Gav avro) kv^Xol iroWai irapa twv (piXfov Gvvu\zyiikvai. 

4. Frequently however the subject of the ac- 
tive is joined to the passive in the dative with- 
out a preposition, chiefly to the perfect of the 
passive. 

Tavra XiXg/crai ?j/iiv. — Ikuvoq eXrfffifi kpwTi Trig 
yvvaiKog. — Tavra irkirpaKTai }x o i, —irie'Cof.itvog r ai g 
Trepi tovc wai^ag GVfityopalg irakiv ir£fj,irb) irpog tw 

% 6v* 

e e 



418 SYNTAX. ' 

5. The Greeks also often form a passive of 
those verbs which in the active take a genitive or 
dative of the object. In this passive therefore 
the object which in the active construction stood 
in one of these two oblique cases, is added in the 
nominative. 

AoTcaVcu Sr/ to au Ti^ibJ/nevov, a/xeXfirat $£ to 
ciTifxaZofxtvov (dpeXuv tivoq). — filau tovq KoXaKEv- 
qvtclq, iJGTTEp Tovg e^airaTiovTaQ' a fx (j) o t e p o i yap tt i g- 

T £V% kv T EC (1) rOUC TTlGTZVGaVTaQ ClSlKOVGlV (tTIGTEVHV 

Tivi).—ravT bIttiov k aT e <j> p ov r)%riv vtt avTOit {Ka- 
Tatypovuv tivoq). — y\ fiziQ vtt A%r}vai(*)v £ 7r 1 13 o vX ev 6- 
[*£% a (2) QirifiovXevuv tivi), 

6. Verbs w T hich take a double accusative in the 
active (see § 104. 4.) have in the passive the no- 
minative of the person and leave the accusative 
of the thing to stand unchanged, because the 
thing remains a true object also in the passive. 

*0 Traig StSaoTcercu t a q t i^v ag (3). — viro (3a- 
aeXleuc ireirpaKTai (f/cavoc) tovq (j>o p ov q (4). — k y u 
€7T£iorSr/v t a\)T a V7to gov (jreizsiv Tiva ri).— K p o lg og, 
afyaip&uq t riv a p XV v (5), <$ieTpi(3e irapa to) Kvpu). 

7. Often even the dative of the person in the 
active becomes the subject of the passive and 
the accusative of the thing remains unchanged. 

Ol Tb)V 'AS»]VaiWV €7TlTfrpajUjU£VOl (6) TTJV <j> vX aKTJ v 



(1) If they are believed.— (2) We are plotted against. — (3) 
Is taught the arts, that is, is instructed in the arts.— (4) He is 
pressed for the taxes by the king.— (5) When the empire was 
wrested from Croesus.™ (6) To whom the watch was consigned. 



KINDS OF VERBS— MIDDLE. 419 

diTEtcTuvav rovg eySpovg (htrirpkiruv rivl n). — Gy^) *£- 
yupOTOVY)iiai dpyrj v (-0* — ° ' ^ V ff T a '» avaySivreg 
irpog fiaaikka, direr fxyfi^aav (2) rag k £ <j> a X a g. 



§ 113. 
MIDDLE. 



1. The middle has in many tenses the same 
form with the passive, and also approaches so 
near to it with respect to signification that care is 
required to distinguish them. The principal sig- 
nification however of the middle is the reflexive, 
namely, that in which the action proceeding from 
the subject is again directed to the subject; so 
that subject and object perfectly coincide in one 
and the same idea. 

2. In this reflexive signification, however, seve- 
ral cases are to be distinguished : thus either the 
subject which performs the action, becomes at 
the same time also the proximate object, that is, 
the middle expresses that an object actively in- 
fluences itself (e. g. Tpliru), I turn, rpLrronai, I turn 
myself, aiayvvw, I excite shame, aiayvvofiai, I excite 
shame in myself, am ashamed) ; or the subject 
becomes the more remote object of the action 
(e. g. atrew, I ask, aiTEopai, I ask for myself, beg 



(1) I have been elected to an office. — (2) Their heads were 
struck off. 



e e2 



420 SYNTAX. 

for myself.-— ajuuvw, I avert, anvvopai, I avert from 
myself) ; or the reflexive of the action is only 
shown in the circumstance that it is accomplished 
in reference to the subject, that is, that the sub- 
ject participates in the accomplishment of it (e. g. 
vitttio tovc Trodag, I wash the feet of another, v'nrro- 
fxai tovq ttoSclq, I wash the feet of myself or mine 
own feet, consequently the same as vi-xtm tovc 
tjuavTov 7r6%ac.) "We shall here give examples of 
these three different cases of the reflexive signifi- 
cation. 

(a) The subject is at the same time the proxi- 
mate object, or the middle is used to designate 
an action which a person accomplishes upon 
himself. 

Ot 0£ e (j) v\ a<j a o v t o toe rj^vvavro, teat cifxa 01 ttoX- 
Xot G(j)ac (throve &ie$Saj0ov, Giruproie a it a y % 6* fisv o i* 
—a 7roo-^ecr3£ aSiKwv tpytov. — X oiKTaaSf, w iraiSte ! 
- — juri ZTraipta^E rmg zvTvyjiaiQ ! 

Note 1 . The use of the middle in this properly reflexive sig- 
nification is the least common, and hence it becomes frequently 
necessary in Greek, as in other languages, to designate the re- 
flexive of an action by the active and a subjoined reflexive pro- 
noun ; <?u g. i.Tcaiv€iv eavrov, to 'praise himself, (e7raire~ia^ai only : 
to be praised.) — dTroKreiveiv iavrbv. to hill himself (d7roKT£iPE(T^ai 3 
to be killed.) 

(b) The subject is a more remote object, or 
the middle denotes, that the action is performed 
for some one's end, or so that the consequence of 
the action is evinced in the subject. In this case 
the middle also, like the active, takes the thing 
as proximate object in the accusative. 



KINDS OF VERBS— MIDDLE. 421 

01 MirvXrjvaitov <j>vya§Eg s jul icr% u <j a p. e v o i £/c Trig 
HeXoTTOvvriaov tiriicovpiKOV, alpovai 'Poirtov, — %^p^ TWV 
dvayKaiwv kcikojv ol aiftpwiroi avroi tTEQa irpoGiropi- 
Zovrai. — 01 <rrpartwrai 7rapa<JK£va<rZ(DCFav ra 
£7rm?§aa. 

(c) The middle expresses that the subject only 
participates in the accomplishment of the action 
without being properly the object of it. 

YlavrtQ t\ov a a vr o Tag yjtipag Kai Tovg ttocciq. — 
ravra aKovaag o K.vpog kir ai aa t o apa tov jurjpov. 

3. In these two last mentioned (b and c) signi- 
fications, namely, where the middle retains the 
signification of the active unchanged, and merely 
denotes that the action is accomplished in refe- 
rence to the subject, must be comprehended the 
middle of most Greek verbs in which this form is 
used. In English the sense of this middle may 
frequently be indicated by personal pronouns, 
frequently by the addition of possessives to the 
object, but the Greek expression often acquires 
by the use of the middle a deflniteness and re- 
finement which cannot be rendered in English. 
Finally the middle in this case retains the con- 
struction of the active. 

O JLvpog iraaav tj)v Aaiav k cit e g t p &\p a r o. — at 
yvvaiKEg, Suvoig Kaicoig meto/nEvai, k k\clv g av t o to. 
TTo^rf K.ai 7T£pipp7]^avTO Tovg viTuvag. — o (f>i\og 
y T7] a a.T o |U£ tovto to (3ifi\iov. — ol ' h%)vaioi Tovg lav- 



422 SYNTAX. 

Ttx>v ovppayovg TroXXa ^prjpara £7rpa£avTo (1). — 
7ro\eu)g vopovg vopit,u), a ol ttoXitcii, a v v% k pt v o i (2) 
a re Set ttoiuv Kctl wv aireysoSm, £ y paxfj avro (3). 

4. A more remote reference of an action to the 
subject takes place also when it is performed at 
the desire or command of the subject, for whose 
end consequently it is performed by another. 
Hence the Greeks use the middle also in this 
signification, where the sense is expressed in 
English by the addition of verbs to cause, &c. 

O Ylavaavlag TpaireCav YlzpaiKr\v Traper't^sr o. — 
Apyaoi &<p£b)v uKovag 7roir)<Tapzvoi aveSzaav eg 
AeXcjyovg. — oi <j>povipoi rb)v yovtiov KaXuyg SiSaaicovTai 
rovg irai^ag. — rw J£vp(o 07rXct rjv pa\a /caXa kcu appor- 
70VTii 9 a o 7raTT7rog 7T£pi to Gtopa £7T£7roir?ro. 

5. The properly reflexive signification, implied 
in the middle, frequently cannot be rendered li- 
terally by an English expression without harsh- 
ness and violence. In such cases we use some 
other intransitive or transitive verb, which cor- 
responds in sense to the signification of the Greek 
middle. 



(1) They extorted (for themselves, for their own benefit). — 
(2) According to an agreement. — (3) They have written (for 
themselves, to observe them themselves) ; for this is the dis- 
tinction between ypdtyeiv or T&ivai vopov and ypdtyeaSai or 
TtSeaSai vopov, that the former can only be said of one who 
gives laws for others, but is himself elevated above law, conse- 
quently of God and absolute monarchs, the latter, on the con- 
trary, of a citizen who gives laws to which he himself is subject. 



KINDS OF VERBS— MIDDLE. 423 

Have aa% £ (1) r " ^ lKa iroiovvreg. — navTeg ot (TTjOa- 
Tiwrai rjyaXX ov r o Kai zv wpii v r o. — vjiug ye 
wX a (T a fievo i (j> a iv ecrSe, ov a r a X £ v r e g (2). — 
(j) o |3 o v rovg Seovg. — o arparog r?Si] ir ep ai ovr a i rov 
iroTaf.i6v, — tiXXepSe (3) ttiv fiYirspa, w KaKodaifioveg. — 
civayKrj $ia to iroWoitg (j>o(5eiv iroWovg Kai eyzpovg 

7TOl£LG%ai. 

Note 2. That verb is alone to be considered middle, which 
with a passive form has a reflexive fundamental signification, as 
has been pointed out in all the cases hitherto adduced. On the 
contrary, the case also occurs in Greek where the internal signi- 
fication does not correspond with the external form of the verb, 
but while the form possesses terminations which are otherwise 
peculiar to the middle, the signification is either purely transitive 
or intransitive, and entirely rejects any reflexive reference. 
Verbs of this kind are called deponent, which must be accurately 
distinguished from verbs middle, and which are considerably nu- 
merous in Greek, as e. g. aiaSaveaScLi, to feel, dtyucveiaSai, to 
arrive, yiyveaSai, to become, to take place, t^ojitcu, to receive, to 
accept, BvvacrSai, to be able, epyaZetrSai, to work, KelvSai, to lie, 
fidxzvSat, tojight, and many others. 



§114. 
MIDDLE FORMS. 

The following must be observed with respect 
to the forms used in the middle signification : 

1. For the future and aorist the middle pos- 
sesses separate forms which in general have only 



(1) Properly; stop yourselves ; hence; cease. — (2) tniXKetu, 
to send, mid. to send one's self; hence, to travel — rlXketv, to 
pull out the hair, mid. to pull out one's own hair, and hence, as 
this is a sign of grief and sorrow, to mourn. 



424 SYNTAX. 

a reflexive signification, although in the same 
signification the aorist of the passive is also fre- 
quently used. 

Ot AaKtSaijuovioi scaXcjg 17 fiv v av r o rovg iroXtjuiiovg, 
——woX^g rivog vojiovg vOjUt^w uvai a oi 7roXirai, g v v- 
ZEfievoi a te $a iroieiv Kal <jjv airiyjEG^ai, £y p aip avr o. 
— riva paXXov av rig £V£py£rrjG£i£v, tj Trap ov yapiv airo- 
Xr]\p£ g^! a 1 vopiZei , — Kuooc, 3 1 arr p a £ a ju e v o g ravra 
tiravzyhjpu. — £*yw fi£v $ok(s) ceicaicig av Kara rr\g yijg r?diov 
cvvai } 7) o (j>% i] v a 1 ovrto rairuvoq. — yvovreg ot rroX^uoi 
to ov, erpaTTi]aav \^i) eig (pvyriv. — Kai gv ye ravra 
sir e ig% i] g (2). — ravra aicovaag o fiacnXwg duviog £ (j> o- 

Note 1. The fat. mid. often stands for the fut. pass., which in 
verbs of a polysyllabic root, would assume a form too lengthened 
and inharmonious. 

Hv vucrjcrwfiev, oi crrparidrai jieya <h(jj eXr/ no v r a 1. — %v 
ravra Bem/Xojrai, ev$vg rb retype (j)vXd£,era i.« — ravra tvoiovvteq 
iravrtsiv rtHv kuklop a it aXXd£,e a$ e. — ol jiep evyovro wc coXiovg 
bvrng av r ov g Xi](j)Bt)vat' oi c (oicreipor, el ctXw a o t v r 0. Xe- 
noph. Anab. I. 4. 7. — edv rig ijfjiag ev 7tol<j)v virdpyr}, Kal rovrov 
eig ye Cvvajnv ovy >/ rr rj a 6 fie S" a ev jrotovvreg. Xenoph. Anab. 
II. 3. 23. 

Note 2, The aor. 2. mid. also is sometimes found used in a 
passive signification, but never the aor. 1 mid. — Thus in Eurip. 
Hippolyt. 27. f. Kareayero stands in a passive signification {'Itttto- 
Xvrov) ih^ovaa QaiSpa, Kapdiap Kareayero epojri otivw. — So likewise 
the participle Karaay6f.terog occurs several times as passive. — In 
Herodotus 8. 90. on the contrary, where (at vfjeg) hecpSapearo 
stands as aor. 2. mid. (for ^te^dpovro) with a passive sense, this 
usage is remarkable, the passive form c)ie<p$dpr)<jav being very 
common, and it appears that it should be there read, dtetySdparo, 
as 3 plur. plusqpf. pass., which tense is also required by the 
sense. 



(1) They betook themselves.— -(2) Hast thou suffered thyself 
to be persuaded. — (3) Became afraid. 



VERBS WITH TRANS. AND 1NTRANS. SIGNF. 425 

2. The perfect and pluperfect passive have at 
the same time the signification of the middle, like 
the present and imperfect passive. 

Aicnr kir p ay /n a i (1) Trapa tov Kvpov, fir) iroiriaai 
ap7rayr)v y — Kvpog £V£Cwaro to, orrXa, a o irainrog avrto 
E%eirEiroiriTo (2). — r) YlavSua, clkivciktiv iraXai iz a- 

p EG KZV a G jlkv 7) (3), G^itTTU eaVTTjV. ZfXOl COKU O fl£V 

Tit) HCH TOV VOVV TTpOGE^WV , JUL £ fl I G 3 0) fX £ V (£> (4) yWpOV 

koiKtvai, o $£ Tr)g <j)i\iag e(j>d/j.EVog tio tov oikuov aypov 

K£KT7]fl£VW. 



§115. 

FURTHER GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON 
CERTAIN VERBS. 

1. Several verbs have a double signification in 
the active, namely, a transitive and an intransi- 
tive or neuter. 

E7ri 2cip§ac r\ y £ v (5) o Kuooc. — o AEp^rjg e'lg c- 
j3 a X £ (6) £C tt/v EXXaSa. — tejulvei /jlegtjv ti)v Botwr/av o 
Krj<picroroc TroTa/iog, irpiv £/c|3aXX£iv (7) £i£ 3aXa<j(rav. 

— KaKLJg £ \W ^O^. £1 TCLVTCL OVTWg £ ^ £ l^ OU (701 jU£/Z- 

(popai. — ot £UffEJ3ei£ £i» Eiprjvy § ictyovG I. — o iraTr)f> tl 
?r p a r r £ t ; KaXtjg it par r £ t. 



(1) I have effected for myself, have obtained. — (2) Had caused 
to be made. — (3) Who kept by her in readiness. — (4) Who has 
hired for himself. — (5) Proceeded to Sardis. — (6) Made an ir- 
ruption. — (7) Before it disembogues. — (8) I am ill. 



426 SYNTAX. 

2. In the perfect 2, this intransitive significa- 
tion predominates, and that not merely with 
verbs possessing the nature just assigned, but 
with those also in which an intransitive significa- 
tion never occurs in the present. On the other 
hand this perfect never has the purely reflexive 
signification. 

'E/C TOVTQV TOV ^pOVOU VLU KoXwq 7T £ 7T p a J (X. Uvp- 

pog eirei avpfiaXuv roig Pw/xaiotc. $ig eviKrjGe, iroWovq 
tCov (j)i\(ov Kai TjyEjUiovijov airoXeaag, av en fiiiav, etyr), p.a- 
ynv 'Pby/naiovg vik:t](TWjU£v, aTroAwXajuev (I ). — k are- 
aye (2) i) yvrpa, — Sopv ev Grepvto £ 7r £ tt rj -y £ t. 

Note. The perf. 2., otherwise erroneously called, the perf. 
mid., stands in the following relation to the perf. 1.: (1) The 
two forms occur together in only few verbs of one and the same 
dialect, especially in those which, besides a transitive, admit of an 
intransitive signification, for which the perf. 2. is then exclusively 
used. Such perf. 2. with an intransitive signification are, besides 
those contained in the preceding examples : kypyyopa (from 
eyeiph)), dvio)ya (from dvolyio), fiefirfva (from fiaivoj), jrcVpiS'a 
(from tte/^w), uiu-q-Ka (from 07/7rw), rirrjKa (from n/W), Ttk<by\va 
(from (palvoj), besides the irregularly formed dpdpa or apripa 
(from dpapiGKb)), eppioya (from prfyvvfii), opcjpa (from opvvfxi), 
lastly, ttySopa and Tti-wXriya (from qSeipio and 7r\//rrw), which at 
least besides the transitive have also an intransitive signification. 
—(2) Usually, however, a verb has only one perfect act. in 
which case the perf. 1. predominates with Attic, and the perf. 2. 
with Epic writers (comp. § 75. I. 1. b.). Nevertheless of some 
verbs the perf. 2. is alone usual even with the Attics, and in a 
signification which belongs as a true perfect to that of the present. 
Such perf. 2. are : ad^oa (from aicovcS), olfia (from £tc>w), eXy'iXvSa 
(from tpyofiai), iceicpaya (from *cpa£a>), r£$r]\a (from ^a'XXw), 
eKrova (from /crfivw), XeXoittci (from Xeittio), XiXrjSa (from Xr/S'w), 
odwcia (from o£a>), iriicovSa (from 7rao-^w), iriiropda (from 7r€pc>w), 
taropya (from ortpyw), rsroica (from TLKTh))^ rirptya (from rpt'^w), 
7r£(p£vya (from 0gvyw), Tretypuca (from ^jOtVcw), ^typ^a (from x £ '£ w )> 



(1) Then are we ruined, aVo\\v/*e, I ruin. — (2) naTaywfjii, I 
break something in pieces, Kareaya, I am broken in pieces. 



VERBS WITH TRANS. AND INTRANS. SIGNF. 427 

and those used in the signification of the present, namely yiyrjBa 
(from yr}$iio), cJe^ia (from AEI£2), eiojScl (from eSrto), eoikcl (from 
£i/ca>), ffetrrjpa (from ca/pw), and %iyr\va (from yaivu). 

3. Some transitive verbs receive an intransitive 
signification only in single forms, namely, in the 
second aorist and in the perfect and pluperfect, 
which are then used exclusively in this significa- 
tion, while all the other active forms of the same 
verb are transitive. The most noted verbs in 
which this is the case are icrrr/p (I place) and ft)w 
(I produce) with their compounds, which in the 
above-named tenses respectively receive the sig- 
nifications to stand and to arise or become, 

E7T£j3aiV£V O Kt^UOIV €7Tl TOV ITTTTOV OpOoQ EffTpW? 

kcli rjKovTi^ev awo tojv 'lttttcov opzog. — kv rw irpog tovq 
Hc\o7rovvri(7iovQ no^e/mo) ot KepKvpaioi E<rr-i|<rav /xera 
rwv A^rjvaibjv. — iravra tt k <p v k e km eXaGGOvaSlai, 

4. Some intransitive verbs which have a signi- 
fication similar to the passive (that is, denote 
that something happens to the subject), are also 
construed like the passive with vtto and the geni- 
tive, if the person is assigned, by which the sub- 
ject has been put into the state expressed by the 
intransitive verb. The most important of these 
are Svr)<7/«iv, cltto^v^gkuv (to suffer death), ttclgkuv 
(to be put into a state), £kttltttuv (to be ejected or 
driven away from a place by force), fcvyuv (to 
quit a place compulsorily, or to be accused). 

'Ektwo an e% av zv v tt o rou'A^tXXiw g.— -iro\- 
\a KaKti iira%o[izv vtto rwv A y a r w v.— -ot ^vyaczq, oi 



428 SYNTAX. 

Kara tyiv otcigiv v ir o r ov tt\ii%ovq k kit ego vt eg? 
/carrjASov ug Tr\v woXlv. — A^euoi u^» 'Efcropo? £<j>v- 
y o v. — ekeIvoq juvya v tt e p ov tclvtyiv rr\v St/cj]v. 



B. Tenses. 
§ 116. 
PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION OF THE TENSES. 

I. General investigation of the tenses. 

1. Since the double forms which the Greeks 
use for some tenses are not different from each 
other in signification, they need not be distin- 
guished here. To explain, therefore, the use of 
the tenses, we shall treat merely of a present, im- 
perfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, aorist, and fut. 
3. passive, and chiefly indeed as far as their usage 
is peculiar to the Greeks, and deviates from that 
of other languages. 

2. In order to define accurately, and under- 
stand correctly the peculiar signification of each 
tense, it is necessary that, besides the idea of 
time, regard should also be paid to the stage or 
period of the action which is expressed in the verb. 
For, as the time admits of being resolved into 
three divisions, being either past, or present, or 
future ; so the action also, considered as such, 
appears in a threefold relation, and must be con- 



USE OF THE TENSES. 429 

ceived either as co?npleted and finished, or as deve- 
loping and forming, or as at the moment of beginning 
and coming on. 

3. Now, both the point of time and the stage or 
period of the action are indicated in the verbal 
forms which we denominate tenses, and hence 
the peculiar idea of each individual tense cannot 
be properly understood, unless at the same time 
a correct conception be entertained of the rela- 
tion which intervenes between the time and the 
action. 

4. But the action in each of its three relations 
can fall into each of the three divisions of time, 
and hence arise three times three, or nine tenses, 
which we shall here develope according to their 
idea, illustrated with examples from the Greek, 
and designated, as far as these will suffice, by the 
usual grammatical appellations. 

(1) The action falls into the present time. 

(a) as completed or finished — ysy pa^a, I have 
written . —Perfect. 

(b) as developing or forming — ypafoj, I write, 
am writing. — Present. 

(c) at the moment of beginning, or coming on 
— fttXXw ypcKpuv, I am beginning to write, am 

just going to write, am on the point of writing. 
— Compound future, formed with the pre- 
sent of the auxiliary verb. 

(2) The action falls into the past time. 

(a) as completed— zytypafyuv, I had written. — • 
Pluperfect. 



430 SYNTAX. 

(b) as developing— eypa^ov, I wrote, was writ- 
ing. — Imperfect. 

(c) at the moment of beginning— ifieXXov y a- 
§uv, I was on the point of writing. 

(3) The action falls into the future time 

(a) as completed — yey pa^wg Ecro/Licu, I shall have 
written.— Future perfect. 

(b) as developing — ypa\pw, I shall write, or be 
writing. — Simple future. 

(c) at the moment of beginning— ypatpwv fVo- 
fiai, I shall be on the point of writing. 

5. All the tenses here specified have a positive 
existence in a language, although they are not 
completely enumerated in the grammar, which 
generally passes over such as do not possess an 
independent form but are produced by composi- 
tion with auxiliary verbs. In Greek there is also 
the aorist, the signification of which we shall de- 
velope in the discussion of the individual tenses. 

II. Use of the individual tenses. 

6. The present expresses an action, which we 
are just now performing, as in other languages, 
e. g. ypa<j>(*), I write, or am writing (am just now in 
the act of writing)„Also the present is used for 
assigning properties, which are permanently con- 
nected with an object without being particularly 
evinced at the present time, or for the expression 
of a general sentiment; e. g. iravra ra aya^a 8/- 

OONTIV O QeOQ.- — TToXXwV KCIKUV aV%p<jJTTOlQ CLlTlOg EGTIV O 

TroXe/LLog. 



USE OF THE TENSES. 431 

7. The perfect serves to designate an action 
just completed, and places a past action in connec- 
tion with the present time ; e. g. yiypafa, I have 
written (the business of writing is just now 
finished). 

H a Ktj k ar e fxlv ra eig rov 7r6\efiov ttoXv paWov 

TWV TTo\£[J.l(i)V , (TV V TGT p Cl$% £ $S KCLI G V V T £ T a y% £ 
£V TO) aVTlt) 7ToXl) TtXuOJ 7}^V yjpOVOV, V 01 TToXkjULlOl, KCll 
(TV V V £V I K7] K aT £ fl£T aXXfjXwV. a 7TO X £ X O I 7T a G I V 

7]fiaq ^zviaq Kai Uaaiwv' aXX £v y£ fxkvroi £iriGTaG$Sd)Gav, 
oti ovt£ air o$ £$ p a k a a iv (oi$a yap 0V17 oiyovrai), 

ovt£ air o ir £ (j>£v y a a iv. Xenoph. Anab. I. 4. 8. 

Note 1. Hence the perfect is generally used to denote a lasting 
and permanent state or an action finished in itself, and therefore 
often occurs in Greek, where in English we use the present. 
This is chiefly the case with the second perfects, which take an 
intransitive signification (s. § 115. Note). 

'Emro xpri yvuvai, otl ovZiv £gtl KEpZaXEwrspop rov vlkup' 6 
yap Kpartiv a/ia 7rdvra a v v y p tt a k e, /ecu tovq apdpac; Kai tciq 
yvpaTucag /ecu ra ^pr/juara. — ravra \xiv eotip, a ttclcti effc^o^- 
Sat (1) (f>r)jjii Ze~lp. — r) koXcjq £rjp, rj koXojq t e 3" v rj K iv at top 

EVyEVfj XP 1 !' ty^OVOQ TOlQ ^OJffl TTpOQ TOP dpTlTTaXoP' TO Zk fit] EfXTTO- 

Stop- dpapTaywviGTw Evvola TETtfJujrai. 

Note 2. Several perfects are always used to denote only the 
finished action, whose effect is permanent, and therefore in Eng- 
lish are translated by the present of some other verb, which ex- 
presses the consequence of the action contained in the Greek 
verb ; e. g. /ce'/cX^ucu, my name is, am called (koXeoj, I name). 
— KEKTTjfxai, I possess (tcTcwfiou, I acquire to myself) — \ii\ipn\iai, 
I remember, am mindful (jipaofjiai, I call to mind) — ol da, I know 
(e'IZu), I see, perceive), &c. 

8. The aorist, on the contrary, only denotes 
generally an action or occurrence of the past 



(1) This, I think, must be the fixed opinion of all (BiBox$ai, 
to be and remain decided.) 

3 



432 SYNTAX. 

without determining the period of its termination^ 
and without leaving the mind to dwell upon it ; 
e. g. £kti<t% rj ttoXiq can be said of any town; on 
the contrary, jWortu rj 7roXtc only^of a town which 
has just been built, or which now exists in its 
finished state. 

Oi r EAAi?v£c £ v i K 7] (X a v rovg JJspaag. — iroWaKig 
zz av fia <j a tkji ttote \6yoig A^Srjvaiovg £ 7r £ t tr a v ol 
ypaxpajuzvoi (1) 2a>/cparj)V, tog a^iog eltj Savarov. — Kvpog 
jue^qi c)toc)£/ca tT(s)V ry rojv Uepawv irai^ua ewai^Ev^ri' 

£/C &£ TOVTOV TOV J^pOVOV ft £T£ 7T EjUlf a T O CIVTOV O 

*Ac>TvajYjg. 

Note 3. Hence in narrative the perfect is frequently inter- 
changed with the aorist, the former being used of an action, 
which as completed remains in its effect, but the latter only ge- 
nerally to denote a past, momentaneous action. 

Ta fiev Trapek^ovra K.vpov ?)H»/ crars, (rrpdrEVjia Zovteq /cat 
apXpvra tovtov clvtov KaraarrrjaavreQ' Kvpog Be r/yovfAEVOQ tovtov 

GVV §EO~lC, EVK\eEI£ flEV VflCLQ, (O TUpGCil, EV TTOLGIV aV$pU)7TOlQ 

k ir o i'r\ cr e v, evti}1ovq ft kv rrj 'Acr/a Trcurr). ru)v Ze avurpaTEvcra- 

jlEVUiV CIVTO) TOVQ jAEV dpi(7T0VQ KOI 7T E 7rXo V T I K £, TOLQ %E 7TOXXo~l£ 

fj.t(T$6v feat Tpoorjv ir a p eokevo. ke v. — 6 fxkv tzoXejjloq cnravriov 

IJfXCLQ T(OV Eipr][xivi»)V ait E(JT E pr\KE' KOi yap TOL TTEVEGTEpOVQ 7T £- 
TToirjKE, KOI TToXXoVQ KlV^VVOVQ VirOflEVELV l)vayKCL<TE, KOI TTpOQ 

tovq "EAXr^ac B ta/3 i(iXr]ic e /cat rrdvra rpoitov reraXairw- 
pr\KEV fipclg. 

Note 4. As the aorist does not definitively assign the point of 
time, when an action was performed, but only denotes generally 
that something has taken place at some period or other of the 
past, the Greeks use it also to indicate that something has 
occurred repeatedly at different periods, or that something is 
wont to take place. Such an aorist is translated in English by 
the present or by the auxiliary verbs to be ivont, to use, &c. 

At f-iEv yap TrAfTcrat ttoXeic, TrpoQTciTTOvm rolg TvoKiraiQ, jiyj 



(1) The accusers of Socrates. 

1 



USE OF THE TENSES. 433 

xkiirreiv, fir/ dpird^eiy, jj.ii direiSeiv apypvTi, Kal raXXa rd tolclvtq.* 
Tjy di Tig rovTiov ri 7rapa(3aivq, £rjjiiag avroic k ir i 3" £ er a v. — 6 Sw- 
Kpdrrjg k B i B a £ e rovg jxa^rjrdg djiiaSL — ol Hipaai k tzo X i \ji 77- 
crav 7rpo%fiii)g /cat SappaXkug. — iroXXd avSpwiroig napd yvu>jxr)v 
£7T£0"£(l) — dvavGola, (earfyf to ttXeov oaTig (2) aVoXeVag tov- 
Xaaaov sXa ft e. 

Note 5. In like manner the Greeks sometimes make use of the 
aorist in images and comparisons, which are added for the more 
accurate representation and description of an occurrence, where 
in English we employ the present ; because such images are de- 
rived from observation and experience, and in so far appear as 
occurrences of the past. Nevertheless in such comparisons we 
frequently find also the present and even the future. 

'Qig <f ote Tig T£ hpaKovTCL l^iov xaXlvopcrog a 7rk art] ovpeog kv 
firfffarjg, vtto re dpojiog kXXaj3e yvla, d\p r dvexiopriaev, 
<Jt>%pog ri jxiv eiXe irapzidg' Sg ai/Tig /caS' ojxiXou edv Tpioiov a'y- 
epio^isjv 'AXiZavdpog, Horn. II. 3. 35. fF. 

Note 6. Hereto is allied the signification of being able, in 
which the aorist also sometimes occurs ; for an event, which has 
taken place frequently and at different times, can easily happen 
again. 

Ma At", ttyr) 6 2a/cae, kyco Kal Evcaijiov'tav tovto vojxi^to, to 
ToXXd eyovTO. iroKXd Kal hairavav. ti ovv, £(f)r), Trpog S'euiy, 6 $£- 
pavXag, ov^l gv ye avTitca jidXa evdaluojv kyivov (3), /cat kjxe 
evciaijiova kiro'nqaag; Xafiiov ydp, £</>//» ravra 7ra'vra kekttigo, 
koi xpw Oiriog fiovXei avTolg. Xenoph. Cyrop. VIII. 3. 46. — < 
k d r<& a v (4) SjJuJUg 6 '(? depyog dvijp, 6 ()£ noXXd kopycog. Horn. II. 
9. 320. — 7raig jikv dpar\v Tzarip k-^et irvpyov fiiyav, ov Kal 
tr p cr £~nr £, Kal K p o a £ p p 7) § T) rrdXiv. Eurip. Alcest. 323. f. 
— ovS' d(TTOV rj v £ a SffTig av-^ddrjg y£ywc, 7TiKpog iroXifaiQ Iff" 
tIi> djiaSiag inro, Eurip. Med. 226. £ 

9. The future tense expresses an action, which 
is to be performed at a future period. Yet in 
Greek an accurate distinction must be observed 
between the simple future and that formed with 



(1) Trt7TT£iPy to fall out, to happen. — (2) As more comprehen- 
sive and emphatical for u tic. — (8) Could you not instantly be- 
come very happy, &c. — (4) For k-ari^ave from KaTa§vi)<rKu). 

W f 



434 SYNTAX. 

lidWa) and the infinitive, as the former only assigns 
generally something which is to take place at one 
period or other of the future, while the latter always 
designates an action which is to he begun at this 
moment; e. g. ypaxf^o), scribam, I shall write (the 
time when the writing is to begin being unde- 
fined) ; on the contrary, ^AAw yptyuv, scripturus 
sum, I am on the point of writing, (am just now 
going to write). Comp. above 4. (1) c. and (3) b. 

Ai/ccua ^paaag GVfifxayov r £ v £ y Seov. — avrip aotyog 
Tag £v (dim GVjixpopag p^ov otfffi Ttov aXXwv. — ore 
fjUfXAov y p a (j> £ iv, irapaykyovk Tig, — etteict] ewc 
£ juleWe yiyv£<r%aij 01 7rpo^i^6vT£g twv Mfi-yaQEWV 
roiovSe htroiiqaav.— ot iroXkfxioi pkWovai p.ayzc&ai 

TflfXiV. 

10. The imperfect represents an action as pre- 
sent in past time, (see above 4. (2) b«), and denotes 
that an action was continuing while something- 
else took place. Hence it is generally used to 
express a continuous action, and in narrative in- 
terchanges with the aorist, which designates 
something momentaneous. 

* Ore £ y p a<pov, irapayzyovk Tig. — o HLvSvSrifiOQ £ % « i- 
p£v clkovojv TavTa. — Tovg 7T£\TaGTag k^k^avT o ot 
fiapfiapoi Kai h jjl a y^o v t o* eVe* § kyyvgr\aavoi ottXitcu, 
It pan ov r o. Kai ol jtilv TreXracrrat £vZug z'lttovto. — oc 
iraXai Azqvaioi aXovpyiq yijul7T£1^ovto i/na.Tia, troiKiXovg 
Se £V£$vvov yjTuvag, 

Note 7. In many verbs from the poverty of external forms 
this given distinction between the aorist and imperfect has dis- 



USE OF THE TENSES. 435 

appeared. Thus forms of the imperfect, as ^v, €<£*?, eicXvc, e£eto, 
&c. are also used in the signification of aorists, which are partly 
not extant, partly less usual in these verbs. In the same manner 
also aorists, as earr), rjX-S-e, edv, &c. frequently stand in the sig- 
nification of the imperfect. 

11. The pluperfect denotes an action, which 
was already completed when another began, or 
while another continued, (see above 4. 4. (2) a.) 

e Ore syeyaatyeiv, Trapayeyove rig. — zv roiq Apa- 
kovtoq volioiq fxia airaGiv to pi err o TOig dfiapravovai Z,v\- 
fuiia, — Savarog. 

12. The future 3 of the passive denotes an 
action, which is conceived as past at a future 
period. 

H TToXlTtla rEA£to£ K £ K OCT flY) G £ T a t, iaV O TOtOVTOq 

avTrjv tTTMTicoTry <j>v\a£,. — fxarriv l/jloi ke k\clv cr £ r a i. 

Note 8. This tense is also used to express a continuous state 
in the future, and hence forms the proper future to those per- 
fects, which take a present signification of their own, and imply 
a continuous, permanent state. (Comp. above, Note 2.) 

npfff/Birtpw lieu vEuripiav Tzavriav apyEiv ir poarET d^er at 
(1). — %a\£7ra v £ Be $eo\ BJaovat iiEpi}.iva.Q* a'XX' efiKrjQ kcli rulcri 
fie fx /£ e t a i (2) eff-9'Xd kclkolgiv. — tovtwv Be tiov tt p ay aaVwv Eg 
didiov rolg ETnyiyvofiivoLQ LivrfLirf k ar aXeXf / \p e t a l (3). — ■ 
Toffovrov ex £l a'Xyoc, 6 oinror k k\ e\t] a e t a i (4). — ciei ttjq afJQ 
tyikicLQ fi e fx v y <r o 11 a i (5). 

13. Although the Greek language is richer 
than any other in independent forms, neverthe- 



(1) It will be and continue imposed as a charge, &c. — (2) 
Will be mingled.— (3) Will remain.— (4) Which he never will 
forget. — (5) I shall remember. 

F f 2 



436 SYNTAX. 

less a circumlocution is also frequently made use 
of by means of the auxiliary verbs uvai (icvpuv, 
virapyeiv) and iyzw in connection with a particle, 
partly to supply deficient or to avoid inhar- 
monious forms, partly to strengthen the signifi- 
cation. Thus, e. g. the conjunctive and optative 
of the perfect both in the passive and active are 
formed with uvai, and the perf. participle, the 
independent forms being only very rarely used. 
But such circumlocutions frequently occur, par- 
ticularly with the poets, even in the place of 
forms which are altogether usual, for the sake 
generally of strengthening the signification ; e. g. 
iyuv kari as more emphatical for e^si, &c. Of the 
circumlocutions formed with z\uv, those chiefly 
are to be remarked, which express the idea of 
the continuous action; e.g. Soph. Antig. 31. f. 

TOiavra (jiciai tov ctyaSov Kpzovra Kr)pv£avTa i\uv (for 

Kiipv^ai) such a command has Creon issued (and it 
still continues) — This kind of circumlocution, 
particularly with uvai, is very common in many 
writers, as for example Herodotus, who often 
employs it instead of the simple verbal form. 



USE OF THE TENSES. 437 



§ 117. 

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS OF THE USE OF THE 

TENSES. 

1. In the perfect and future this given usage of 
the tenses obtains also in the remaining modes 
and in the infinitive and participle. 

2. But the present and aorist of the con- 
junctive, optative, imperative and infinitive nearly 
coincide in their signification, and are only so far 
distinguished, that the modes and infinitive of 
the present are used when an action is to be re- 
presented as continuous, but those of the aorist, 
on the contrary, when as transient and momen- 
taneous. 

Tpiripeig irzvTTiKovTa 7rapa<TK£vac>a(y%ai $r)fxi §tlv, 
eir avrovg ovtu) Tag yviofiag £ X £ l v ' — £7r£t ^ av airavra 
cucovariTt, K p i v a t e, Kal fxrf irpoTtpov -k poX a p (3 a- 
vsre. — KaXkaag o Kvpog Apa(nrr\v Mr$ov, tovtov 
zkeXzvge ^lafoXa^at avTO) tt)v yvvaiKa. — ravrr\v ovv 

EKeXeVGEV O KvpOg §l(t(f> v\a.T T ElV TOV Ap a<JTT7] V, £WQ 

av avrog X a j3 ij. — ^aX£7rov ro ttoleiv, to Se k £ X £ v- 

pa 



<r a i paSiov 



3. The participle of the aorist however has 
always the signification of the past, and is only 
distinguished from the participle of the perfect by 
designating the transient and momentaneous, 
while the latter implies what is continuous and 
permanent ; e. g, aoKriaag, having (at one time or 



438 SYNTAX. 

other) practised, tigkwuc, having (continually or 
until this moment) practised. In many verbs, 
however, the more harmonious form of the par- 
ticiple of the aoristhas entirely supplanted that of 
the perfect, and is now employed as synonymous 
with the same* 

uk av cvvaio pirj /cajuwv tvoaifiovuv.' — our e it t- 
%e 1 pri a a g 9 our £tti% v p.r\G aq oio\t, otov rirvyjiGa (1). 

TOVQ (A£V (plXoVQ £TTU$OV &1 EjUOlf zvSaifiovaQ y £ V O JUL £- 

V OV Qj TOVQ &£ TToXzfAlOVQ V7T EfHOV $ O V \ (*) % £ V T CI Q. 

Note 1. All the rules here assigned on the usage of the tenses 
are in the principal points always observed. Yet we not unfre- 
quently find them neglected even by the best authors, particularly 
in an alternation between the use of the aorist and the use of the 
perfect, and chiefly of the imperfect, the adoption of one or 
other of these forms being in many cases merely dependent 
upon the view of the speaker or writer. 

Note 2. The present is frequently used for the aorist not only 
in lively narrative, but in narrative generally, where the true 
time is evident from the context. 

Kcu dva\afj.fjciyov(Ti re ra oirXct, kol ol Hvpafcovcriot 
ai & 3* dv o vt a i f teal kit a i w v iff a V jvovteq he ol , ABr)vaioi 7 
on ov \(j.v§avovffif k ar i $ e v r o (ra owXa ) TtdXiv. — 
As authorities for the most varied interchange in the use of the 
present, imperfect and aorist in narrative, see Xenopb. Agesil. 2» 
17—20. and Thucyd. 1. 48. 

Note 3. In some verbs such a permutation of the tenses is ne- 
cessary, because the present already contains in itself the signifi- 
cation of the preterite ; e. g. »;'k:w, / am come, have arrived; diypiiai, 
/ am gone ; aYovw, / have heard, I know. 

"Apn i'j k s t £, r/ irdXai ; — QefitffroicXia ok d kov e i q dvCipa 
dyaSrdv yeyorora ; — Mapdovioc, iae ekvSeto rov£ f/ E\Aj?me d n o l- 
■%o \i e v ov c, KaXiffag tovq ffrpariyyovQ eXeyev. 



(1) I am not conscious of having attempted or aspired after 
any thing which I did not compass. 
S 



MODES. 439 



C. Modes. 



§ 118. 

DEFINITION OF THE IDEA OF THE DIFFERENT 
MODES. 

(Comp. § 61). 

1. The idea of being, which is contained in 
every verb, declares universally, that a property 
is to be conceived in connection with the subject, 
but this connection itself may again be conceived 
in different and generally in three ways. 

2. For if a property is to be conceived in con- 
nection with a subject, it must either (a) appear 
to exist in the same directly and unconditionally, or 
the idea must prevail, (b) that it can come into 
connection with the subject, that its existence in 
it is possible, or it must (c) belong to the subject 
as a requisite and in so far appear as necessary. 

3. These three assigned relations are desig- 
nated by the different modes^ of which the in- 
dicative denotes, that a property must be con- 
ceived to exist in the subject unconditionally, i. e. 
in and of itself. 

4. When the connection of a property with the 
subject is conceived as possible, a twofold case 
is to be distinguished ; for the property either 
belongs to the subject under certain conditions and 
circumstances, and the possibility is objective, or it 
belongs to the subject merely according to the 
human imagination, in which case the possibility 



440 SYNTAX. 

exists only in the mind and is therefore subjective. 
The objective or conditional possibility is desig- 
nated in Greek by the conjunctive, the subjective 
or absolute possibility by the optative. 

5. Lastly, the case in which the property is 
conceived to exist as a requisite in the subject, 
and in so far appears subjectively necessary, is 
designated by the imperative. 



§119. 

USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND 
OPTATIVE IN SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. 

1 . In simple propositions the use of the indica* 
tive is the same in all languages, as every thing 
which really exists and every general sentiment 
pronounced unconditionally, must be designated 
by this tense. 

2. The conjunctive denotes the conditional and 
dependent, i. e. any thing which, in order to be- 
come real, requires the intervention of something 
else. The use of this tense is therefore chiefly 
confined to the department of dependent pro- 
positions. But as the dependent and conditional 
does not necessarily receive its limitation from 
external circumstances, but the reason of the 
conditionality may lie in the human imagination ; 
hence cases also occur wherein the conjunc- 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPTAT. 441 

tive is used by the Greeks in simple propositions. 
These cases are the following. 

(a) in encouraging and exhorting in the first 
person plural, and in warning and 'prohibiting in 
the second person (because the performance of 
the action still depends upon the will of the per- 
son to whom the address is made). 

' I to ft e v.- — a\\ aye, i to fitv Kai jua^WjUfSa TOiq 
7ro\(/j,ioiQ.—fJLri^evl avjityopav ovstSiff^ £. — kclv /uovoc. 
yg, (j>av\ov fxrire X k £ y g, fi7)TZ k p y a a y Tt. 

(b) The conjunctive is likewise used in simple 
propositions, when something should be ex- 
pressed as undecided with respect to its issue : 
hence 

(a) in questions implying doubt. 

Eyw tl Trotw; — i\ 7T d) fie v, rj a i y w fi e v ; — tl 

$to ; Tl $ p W ; £ t 7T to OVV GOl TO d'lTLOV J 

(|3) in negative propositions, chiefly with ov pri, 
when something is not to be positively denied, 
but only stated as unlikely to occur. In this case 
we commonly translate the conjunctive by the 
future. 

Ob fULYJ £ I 7T to (1). OU firj 7T 1% T) T CI I. kav TOVQ fy'v 

X" t " ■■ > f rs f >/ 

ovq KpaTigg £u irouov, ov jur/ cot ouvwvrar avtwuv 

o\ iro\kjxioi. 

Note. The poets also frequently use the conjunctive in posi- 
tive propositions, where we translate it by the future, although it 



(1)1 will not say. 



442 SYNTAX. 

does not imply mere subsequence, but principally something un- 
decided ; e. g. Horn. II. I. 268. oh ydp7T(o toiovq '[Sop avepag, oh 
de 'Ltitofiat (nor shall). The peculiar signification of this con- 
junctive is most clearly shewn, where it stands in connection 
with the future; as, e, g. Homer. Od. 16.437. ovk '£&& ovtoq 
avrjp, ovS' 'iorosrai, ovSe yevyrai, there is not, neither will there be, 
nor can there be, such a man. 

3. The optative denotes a thing purely imagina- 
tive, a mere human conception, abstracted from 
all reality and condition. Hence its use in simple 
propositions is very common and diversified, al- 
though it admits of being reduced chiefly to the 
following cases : 

(a) Every occurrence which in and of itself is 
conceived as possible (whether the imagination 
employs it as an expectation, a hope, an appre- 
hension, or as a merely assumed case), is ex- 
pressed by the optative, usually in combination 
with the particle av (comp. § 120. 5. a). In Eng- 
lish we translate such an optative by the addition 
of the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, 
should, 8$c. 

laojg av tivzq e ir ir i firj cciav toiq upr\}xkvoiq. — - 
ou/c av a if d'ff "j^o t fxfj v irXeov^KTOvvrag opwv tovq ara- 
KTOvvraq. — ra irovrjpa av^ptoiria ovk av aXXwc juaXXov 
£ X o i q, i) u £ic\h»7C ti* tovq Sf koXovq Kaya^lovg av^pu)- 
7rouc, 7rpOQ<j>i\u)Q yjptofizvoq, fxaXiGT av k ar e p y a a a i o. 
— y fvoir av wav kv tw yiaKptt) ypovM. 

(b) In the same light must the optative be 
considered, when it is used to express requests, 
commands, and even positive assertions, where 
with us it is, for the most part, translated by the 



MODES.— INDICAT. CONJ. AND OPTAT. 443 

imperative or the future. For in this usage there 
is couched merely a milder and more refined form 
of expression, chiefly adopted by the Attics, 
wherein we advance that which might be pro- 
nounced unconditionally and positively, merely 
as our own opinion and idea, and consequently do 
not anticipate the judgment of others. 

Ovk av air o (j>ev yo i c ttjv vogov, — djpa av £ i r\ 

TTpCLTTeiV TCL §£OVT(l. X £ J O I Q O.V a 0£l XeyBlV. 

(c) Also the optative is used for the expression 
of a wish (for a wish is the idea that something 
can be, united with the desire that it may be), 
sometimes accompanied by the particles a, uOe, 
u yap, wg, sometimes without them. 

KaXrJv (rot Owl SiSoiev rvyr\v. — w ttcu, y&voio 
irarpoq evTv^ecfrepog , ra S' aXX' Ofxoiog. — eiSe a<j>avi- 

(7$£IJJ TO KaKOV £$ ClvSptOTTtoV . XaXvj3(OV d>C a 7T o- 

X o i t o yevog. 



Use of the Indicative, Conjunctive, and Optative, in 
dependent Propositions. 

% 120* 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS— USE OF THE 
PARTICLE dV. 

1. The further doctrine of the use of the above- 
mentioned three modes is so ample and compli- 



444 SYNTAX. 

cated, that a necessity arises of dividing it into 
different sections. And, as the use of any parti- 
cular mode taken singly and alone determines 
itself according to the form and sense of the pro- 
position, so the individual cases of the use of 
these modes admit of the best arrangement, ac- 
cording to the various forms of the dependent 
propositions. 

2. Of dependent propositions we distinguish 
three different classes, namely (a) supplemental 
propositions, (b) transitive propositions, (c) relative 
propositions. 

3. These dependent propositions are connected 
with the principal proposition by means of certain 
particles, which, however, merely serve to place 
the sense implied in the mode in a clearer and 
more positive light ; but by no means, as it is 
usual erroneously to suppose, occasion the ne- 
cessity of or govern the mode itself. 

4. The several particles made use of for con- 
necting dependent propositions, we shall as- 
sign separately for every form of the dependent 
proposition : but one of them, namely, the par- 
ticle av, is so diversified with respect to its use, 
as to be applied in almost every form of the de- 
pendent proposition, and must therefore be dis- 
cussed in this place preliminarily to all the others. 

5. The particle av, synonymous with the Epic 
ke or Kev, imparts to the verbal expression, which 
it accompanies, the accessory idea of conditionality 9 
i. e. it denotes that the thing of which we dis- 
course is conceived as dependent upon certain 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPTAT. 445 

circumstances. The use of this particle is there- 
fore extremely various, as it is applied in all cases 
where a thing or an idea is not to be expressed 
absolutely and of itself, but as dependent upon 
contingencies, consequently as uncertain, doubt- 
ful, difficult, probable, or generally as possible. 
Hence av is also frequently associated with other 
particles, to limit or modify their sense, as will be 
shewn in the succeeding sections. On the use of 
av in independent propositions the following must 
be observed : 

(a) In connection with the optative, with which 
in the common language it is most frequently 
employed (comp. § 119. 3. a.), av denotes that the 
mere idea expressed by the optative is also con- 
ceived in a relation to reality, i. e. as realizing 
itself under certain circumstances ; e. g. ovk avaa- 
3(otp]v, / cannot possibly endure (the enduring ap- 
pears to me as impossible in and of itself, without 
any regard being paid to existing circumstances, 
or the operation of contingencies) ; on the con- 
trary, ovk av avaayo[ur]v 3 1 should not endure (the cir- 
cumstances would not be of that kind, that I 
should endure). 

(b) In connection with the conjunctive, av is used 
in simple propositions only by Homer and the 
poets, to denote that an event will be realized 
merely through existing circumstances ; e. g. 

Hom. II. 1. 205. jjq virspoirXiyai T ^% av wort Svuov 

oXtaaij, through his pride it will happen that he will 
lose his life (bXeoau would express the loss of life 
as a positive assertion without regard to existing 



446 SYNTAX. 

circumstances ; but &Ak»$ av implies that the loss 
of life is conceived in a purely objective sense, 
and as the consequence of pride). — In like man- 
ner, II. 1. 182. f. T7)V jU€V lyW GVV Vfjl T fjU^J Kdl ifldlQ 

£Tapoi<jiv Trzf.vpii) } kyu) $£ k aya) (where the fut. 7T£/ui//fe> 

designates the positive subjective assertion, but 
ayu) ke a case brought about by circumstances). 
The English translation of such a conjunctive by 
the future, by no means accurately corresponds 
to the true sense, but a nearer approximation to 
it is furnished by the construction it will happen 
that 

(c) In the connection of av with the indicative, 
a distinction must be made between the different 
cases : (a) av is only very seldom joined to the 
indicative of the present and future, to soften the 
positive expression, and to invest it with an air of 
uncertainty ; e. g. ovk old' av, I dont exactly know, 
I dont rightly know. — ol/nai av, I should suppose, — 
KivSewtvei av uvai, it seems certainly to be, it would 
seem to be.- — In this manner Homer frequently uses 
av in connection with the future, e. g. II. 22. 42. 

raya K£V c Kvvsg teal yvirzq i^ovrai, SOOn perhaps Will the 

dogs devour them. — II. 4. 76. /ecu k£ tic ffi «$>««, and 
thus perhaps some one will say. — Also av sometimes 
appears with the indicative of other tenses in the 
same signification ; e. g. Xenoph. Cyrop. VII. 

1. 38. svZa $17 eyvoj av tic, ogov a^iov eh] to (j>i\ti(JZai 

apyovra v7ro tuv apyofxivu>v, then a person probably 
saw, &c, then might one see, Sec. — (/3) With the in- 
dicative of preterites, particularly of the imper- 
fect and the aorists, av denotes that an action has 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT AT. 447 

not taken place merely once and at some definite 
period, but as often as circumstances occurred to 
occasion it ; hence in English translation we either 
express it by adverbs as generally, usually, or by 
verbs to be wont, to use, ox, according to an idiom, 
not unlike the Greek, by would ; e. g. Herodot. 3. 

51. o Sc, ok(i)q cnrzXavvouzvoQ sASoi eg aXXyv oiKiav, aire- 

XavvzT av Kal airo TavrriQ, he used to be driven away, 

&C. — -Elirip. Phoen. 401. ttotI fxlv kir ri/uapuyov, eir 

ovk tiyov av, then again I would have nothing, used to 
have nothing, 

(d) Sometimes av is joined even to the impera- 
tive, to soften the positiveness of the expression 
contained therein ; e. g. Sophocl. (Ed. Tyr. 1424. 
iSpae av, zl tqvt t<& av, I should have done it, that 
you may well suppose. 

(e) When av is joined to the infinitive or parti- 
ciple, the event expressed in the verbal form is re- 
presented by it as conditional, and merely probable ; 

e. g. kvofxiCov, u Trpu)TH]V ravriiv tt\v ttoXiv Xafioizv, pa^lwg 

av a(j>i(ji t a\Xa wpoaytjpriGziv, they thought that the 
rest would readily surrender to them. — roue 'A%vaiovg 

7]Xiritfiv 'iaii)Q av kir^kX^uv, Kai tt\v yrjv ovk av Trspu^uv 

rtir\%vai, he expected that they would probably take the 
field, and would not suffer, Sec. — EuptWw ravrnv av p.6- 

vt]v yevo/uLevrjv twv (xeXXovTuyv kiv^vvcov airoTpo7ry]Vj J find 

that this would be, 8$c. 

Note 1. All the remaining cases of the usage of av are con- 
fined to the department of dependent propositions, and are there- 
fore enumerated in the following sections. 

Note 2. With the poets in particular the particle av frequently 
occurs twice in one member or clause of a proposition, where it 



448 SYNTAX. 

is explained in one of the instances as a pleonasm. But of this 
repetition of the particle in the same member, two cases are to 
be distinguished : (a) for either the words belonging to the same 
part of the construction are separated from each other by a long 
intermediate proposition and the particle av, which already 
stands in the beginning is again placed after this proposition, as 
Sophocl. Antig. 464 ff. a'W av, el rov k% efirjg fir)rp6g Savovr 
aSairrov kayoixriv vIkvv, kuvolq av rfXyovv. — Ibid. 897 ff. ov yap 
iroT ovr av, el reKvojv jur/r/)p 'i(^vv,ovT el ttogiq juoi KarSavuv errj- 
xero, (jla ttoXitCjv tov<? av rjpofirjv -kqvov. — (b) Or the two par- 
ticles are to be defended on the ground that one must be con- 
nected with the verb, the other with some other word of the 
proposition, as Sophocl. Antig. 388. oyp\r\ y av ij^etv devp* av 
efyvxpw TrdXai, where the first is to be referred to rj£,eiv, the 
second to devpo. — Similar passages may be found in the same 
play, v. 672 and 876. In Eurip. Troad. 1233., it stands even 
three times in the same proposition, dtyavelg av ovreg ovk av 
vfjLvrj^eljJiev av Movaaig, wherein it must be connected with ovreg, 
ovk and vfjLvrjSeljuev. — Consequently, av is not in reality pleon- 
astic in either of the two cases. 

Note 3. With respect to the place assumed by av in a propo- 
sition it admits only of being defined generally, that when other 
particles also occur, it is usually attached to these, and otherwise 
to the most important and emphatic word of the proposition. 
Hence it accedes to adverbs and to neuter adjectives and pro- 
nouns, which serve for the modification of discourse, as e, g, 
Tr\e~i<TT qlv, iJkutt av, fj-dXiar av, padiiog av, TOiavr av, 'icrojg av, 
jj,6\ig av, &c. In like manner it is annexed to negative particles 
standing in the proposition, as e. g. ovk av, ovc" av, oinror av, &c. 
In interrogative propositions it approaches as near as possible to 
the word of interrogation, as e. g. Tig av, rib" av, ri drir av, iribg 
av, 7rwe yap av, dp' dv, &c. — In the remaining cases an accurate 
insight into the sense and a taste for the harmony of discourse., 
must teach the position of this particle ; although it ought never 
to stand at the beginning of the proposition, but always after one 
or more words. 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT, 449 



§ 121. 

INTERCHANGED USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CON- 
JUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE IN SUPPLE- 
MENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 

1. A supplemental proposition is that member 
from which the idea of another proposition re- 
ceives a condition or modification, so that the two 
together, the proposition and supplemental pro- 
position, express an entire, perfect idea. 

2. Such a supplemental proposition either de- 
scribes, (a) the circumstances, under which a 
thing is done, and consequently assigns the time 
when a thing happens, or it contains (b) the oc- 
casion and cause from which it is done, or it fur- 
nishes (c) the condition, under which the event 
assigned in the principal proposition may be con- 
ceived as real. Supplemental propositions there- 
fore serve to assign (a) the time, (b) the cause, (c) 
the condition. 

3. The circumstances, under which a thing is 
done, are at the same time frequently the causes 
also why it is done, and therefore the supple- 
mental propositions, which are formed for assign- 
ing the time and the cause, are so intimately 
allied together, as not to admit without useless 
repetition of being separated from each other. 
We shall therefore treat in this section, I. of sup- 
plemental propositions for assigning the time and the 
cause ; II. of hypothetical ox conditional propositions. 

G g 



450 SYNTAX. 



I. Supplemental Propositions for assigning the 
Time and Cause. 

4. The particles made use of for assigning the 
time and cause are the following : (a) for both 
the time and cause ; lied, kiru^ri, ^q, ore — (b) for the 
time alone: woca, ottote, ewq — >(c) for the cause 
alone : on, $i6ti. 

5. The following are general rules for the con- 
struction of these propositions : (a) the indicative 
always stands in direct discourse after temporal 
and causal particles, when the time and cause are 
assigned unconditionally and as facts, (b) The 
conjunctive is used in a supplemental proposition, 
when this proposition appears as conditional, and 
the temporal and causal particles then receive 
uv. (c) The optative stands in a supplemental pro- 
position, when mere ideas and conceptions are 
assigned, consequently for the most part after 
temporal particles, to express not an individual 
circumstance but cases of frequent recurrence. 

Ov §okh aoi to$e irpovoiaq tpyio koackvai, to, e it e\ 
acrS^vrJc egtiv r) oxpiq, pXzfyaooig aimjv Svptoaai ' f — ■ 
rjyovfxrjv, e it e i euro tovtov G^oXaaaiq, tote Kal a^ 
Efxl e£eiv o^oXtjv. — K.vpog viriayETO, avdpi ekclgtiq owcteiv 
wevte apyvpiov jdvag, k ir a v eig T$aj3v\(Lva rj k oj g t. — 
irokiv ov7T(t) EwpaKac avTiTarro^Evrjv (1) irpog iroXiv 
iripavs, $rcc, eiTEidav v tt r? $ #, irapayjp-qfia Tavry 



(1) At war. 



MODES.—INDIC. CON.I. AND OPT. 451 

avTi tov jua^EffSai ttuSegScli &e\ei ; — £ w el fiayofizvoi ovk 
eov v a v t o \af3ziv to ywpiov, airikvai STreyeipovv.— 

OVKETl 7}fX£ig EKEIVOV GTOaTltoJTOl EG/lI£V s £ IT £ I y£ OV G V V E- 

7T0jU£3a avTw, — ^aX£7ra ra -irapovTa, otto re GTpaTrj- 
yiov toiovtwv crrfOo/ifiSa. — ravra Xkywv (1) o 2w- 

KpCLTYIQ OV fJlOVOV TOVQ GVVOVTOQ £$OK£l 7T01EIV, 7T O T E VTTO 

Ttov av%pd)TTiov o Qto v t o, air£y£G%ai twv avoaiuv Kai 
a$iKh)v tpyuv, aXXa /cat ottot £ ev spri/mia eiev, £ 7T £ 1 7T £ o 
y yri G a ivto, )iyi$£v av ttote, wv -irpaiTOiev, Seovg eia- 
XaSav. — fX£fivr\fiai clkovgoq (2) ttote crou, on ukotmq av 

Kai 7Tapa TtoJV %£to)V TTpOKTlKlOTEpOQ £17) (3) toJGTTEp Kai 170.00. 

av«?pw7ra)v, ogtiq firi, o tt o t £ ev a7ro^)0£^ £ i r;, ror£ 
koXokevoi, aXX o r £ ra aoiara 7r p a r r o i, ror£ juaXtara 

TtoJV Z£to)V (J,£(XVto)TO. — -OTCLV Tl 7T O I TJ G to) G I, VOfXIElQ TOVQ 

XEOVQ GOV <ppOVTlZ,£lV ', £ to) Q CLV £ % to) G I TO $ZOVTa ol 

GTpCLTlWTOl, VTTrjp£Tr)GOVGl Tto) GTpaTt]yto). 

Note 1. In Homer the conjunctive is also connected with tem- 
poral particles without the accession ofaV, to represent the sup- 
plemental proposition as conditional ; on the contrary, if av or ks, 
kev, be added, it denotes that the supplemental proposition fur- 
nishes at the same time the condition for the principal proposition ; 
€. g. II. 1. 80. KpEioawv yap (jacrtXevQ^ ore \(oa et ai avdpl XEprji, 
in case that he is angry. — II. 6. 41 1. f. ov yap er a\\r) earai £a\- 
7rwpj), £7T£t av av ye Trorfiov err I or Try q, incase thou fulfillest 
thy destiny, there will no longer be another hope. 

Note 2. In the instance also, where a conception is adduced 
after temporal and causal particles and consequently the optative 
is made use of, av or kev accedes, to indicate that the supple- 
mental proposition at the same time contains the condition for the 
principal proposition; e. g. Od. 4. 63. f. av^pQv yevoQ kare $1.0- 
TpE(j>i<i)v fiaen\{]b)v aKrjTrrovyiov , k. 7t e t ov ke xaKoi rotova^E t e ko\le v, 
since people of low degree would not beget such. 



(1) By such doctrines. — (2) To have heard. — (3) That he is 
more certain of attaining his object. 

Gg2 



452 SYNTAX. 

Note 3. After verbs denoting mental emotion, as to wonder, to 
rejoice, to grieve, to be vexed, to be displeased, &c. the Greeks, in- 
stead of oti, make use also of e I, and that indeed always, when 
the circumstance which occasioned the emotion is not assigned as 
certain and determined ; on the contrary, on is used to represent 
a certain fact ; e. g. edldcuTicov rijv yvvaiKa, tog ovk av a % So tro 
$iiccti(j)g, e I 7r\£<to avrfi Ttpajfiara 7rpoorarrw, i) toIq oltceraiQ napl 
to. Krrjfjiara, because and in case I commit more affairs ; — on Tvpoa- 
TaTTU) would state this actually to take place ; el -rrpovr. expresses 
that it perhaps may take place. — $avjjid£(o, e I p) floyS-fivere vfxiv 
avTo~iQ, I wonder, that; — the speaker is uncertain whether they 
will help themselves or not ; if his opinion were decided that this 
would not be the case, then on should be employed instead of el. 

XL Hypothetical or Conditional Propositions. 

6. Hypothetical propositions contain the con- 
dition of those which are connected with them, 
i. e. one member of the sentence declares that 
something takes place, when that takes place, 
which is expressed in the other member. 

7. Without regard to the external connection, 
the adduced condition is denominated the ante- 
cedent and the consequence founded thereon the 
consequent proposition, although in discourse the 
latter may often precede the former. 

8. The condition itself may be adduced in a 
variety of ways, and according to the different 
view under which it is adduced, the hypothetical 
proposition itself assumes different forms. We 
distinguish herein the following cases : 

(a) The condition is expressed absolutely, with- 
out regard as to whether it really occurs or not, 
simply as a general sentiment In this case the 
antecedent takes « with the indicative of the re- 
quisite tense, and the consequent likewise the 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 453 

indicative, or, in demanding, the imperative ; e.g. 
ft n £ x* ic, Soe, if thou hast, give (whether he has or 
not remains entirely undecided). — £ J k (3 p 6 v t r? a £, 

Kai 7]ar^atpzv.-—Ei tovq Ssovq 'IXewq zival <rot j3 o v X £ t, 
^£pM7T£yr£ov roi/c $£.oi>c. — *« ™ Trsiffovraa MtjSo*, £££ 
Il£f>(7ac to ^£ivoy ?? £ £ t. 

(b) The condition is expressed as an assump« 
tion and idea, wherein all regard to reality is left 
entirely out of the question. The antecedent is 
formed with u and the optative, the consequent 
takes the optative with av ; e. g. oi>% £ l ttclvtzq i A- 

Sot£v Ukpcrai, ttX^ei je ovk a v v it £ p ]3 aXo I u E^a 
rovg iroXe/Jiiovg. — ou iroXXri av aXoyia £it/, £i ^>oj3ot- 
to tov Savarov o Siicaioc;. 

(c) The condition is expressed as a supposition, 
the realization of which depends upon external 
circumstances, so that its taking place or not 
taking place will be learnt from experience. The 
conjunctive with kav, y\v, av, stands in the antece- 
dent, the indicative in the consequent; e. g. kav 

tovto ykv r\r a i s KaXu)Q £ £ o v a i v ol TToXirai. — kav ri 

£%WjU£V, §<OG O flEV. 

(d) The condition is expressed with the con- 
viction, that it cannot be reduced to reality. In 
the antecedent u stands with the indicative of a 
preterite, in the consequent av with the indicative 
likewise of a preterite ; e. g. at tieI^bv, t$i$.ov 

av, if he had, &C. — £ i to £)(av ovTiog, Gj<77T£p to Xa/ufiavEiv 
rjcv iq v, 7ro\v av S i £ cj> £ p o v Ev^aipovla ol wXovaioi 
twv TrevrjTMV. — £i Tracri TavTO tcaXov £(j)V ao(j>6v S* afxa, 
qvk r\ v a v afxtyiXtKTOQ av%pu)7roiq epig. 

3 



454 SYNTAX. 

Note 4. Besides these adduced cases, the most varied changes 
can take place in the combinations of hypothetical propositions, 
on account of the very different modes in which a consequence 
can be conceived as dependent upon a condition. Thus, from a 
given condition may be derived a preceding, a simultaneous, and 
a succeeding consequence, so that the tense of the consequent 
proposition must, vary according to the difference of sense ; e. g~ 
e I rovro uXtj^eq eern, cltottov 7]v, or eort, or corai. In like manner 
a consequence which is founded only in our imagination, may 
be derived from a condition expressed as absolute, so that the 
consequent proposition is formed with the optative, while the 
antecedent takes the indicative with el ; e.g. el tovto ciX^eq, 
£(tti, cltottov a v e t y].— Also the consequent is often already de- 
pendent in sense and construction upon another proposition, and 
therefore cannot be regulated in its combination by the hypothe- 
tical antecedent; e.g. rS 'AnoXXtovL ev^avro ol'ASrjvaioi, el oio- 
$e7ev, ekclgtov etovq ^Eojpiav clttcl^elv elq A rjXov> where aVa^ir 
contains the supplement to ev£>clvto* 

Note 5. A (properly Doric) collateral form of the particle e& 
is ai, which has this peculiarity, that in and of itself it can only 
stand in connection with the optative. If ke be added to the 
same, the conjunctive enters. But in both constructions this 
particle occurs only in those hypothetical propositions which de- 
scribe an event accompanied with affections of the mind (as ex- 
pectation, apprehension, wish, indignation, and the like). 

Note 6. With the Attics, at least the prose writers, eI is never 
found with the conjunctive. Also in Homer this connection of 
eI and the conjunctive without the accession of civ, ke, kev is only 
of very rare occurrence ; but with the Dorians it frequently 
takes place. Herodotus makes use of the simple eI with the 
conjunctive, only in the signification whether in dubitative inter- 
rogations. On the contrary, in oblique discourse, when the ideas 
of others are assigned, the infinitive invariably stands after eI ; 
see Herodot. 3. 105 and 108. 

Note 7. When, as frequently happens, the hypothetical ante- 
cedent is expressed by a participle without a subjoined condi- 
tional particle, this occasions no change in the construction of the 
consequent. 



MODES.- INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 455 



§ 122. 

USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND 
OPTATIVE, IN TRANSITIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

1. When, instead of an individual person or 
thing, an event, which we express by a proposi- 
tion, is assigned as the object to a transitive verb, 
this proposition stands in the same intimate rela- 
tion to the principal proposition as the object to 
the verb, and therefore because it is reached by 
the action of the principal verb, it is denominated 
a transitive proposition. 

2. A similar near relation obtains when we as- 
sign to an action the aim or intention, which is to 
be accomplished by the same ; for here also the 
action is evidently conceived as directed in its 
effect upon the intention, consequently as tran- 
sitive. 

3. There are therefore two kinds of transitive 
propositions to be distinguished, namely, I. tran- 
sitive proposition for assigning the object ; II. tran- 
sitive proposition for assigning the intention. 

I. Transitive Proposition for assigning the Object. 

4. The particles made use of for the formation 
of these transitive propositions, are on and wq. 
But the verbs upon which such a transitive pro- 
position depends, are all those which express a 
perception of the external or internal sense, as 



456 SYNTAX. - 

to hear, to see, to feel, to perceive, to experience, to 
observe; to understand, to apprehend, to comprehend ; 
as also those which denote an operation of the 
thought or an action proceeding therefrom, as to 
judge s to think, to believe, to know 9 to remember, to 
forget; to say, to tell, to disclose, to announce, to 
mention; to shew, to prove : lastly, the impersonal 
phrases, it is manifest, plain, evident, certain, Sec. 

5. These transitive propositions invariably take 
the indicative, when any thing is expressed uncon- 
ditionally or adduced as a fact ; on the contrary, 
the optative, when we merely assign the opinions 
and ideas of others . 

YlavTtg ojuoXoyovGiv, u>£ at ftayai K p ivovt a i jnaX-° 
Xov raiq xjjvyaiQ, i] rmq rwv aiofiaTwv pwfxaiq. — ITtoi- 
kXeovq tJSij SiafizfirjKOToq £€ EvjSocav cupeGTiocrav rCov A$??- 
vaitev, rjyyeX^ij civtu), o t i Wlzyapa a <j> e cft 7] k z, Kat 
JJs\o7rovvr}Cfioi ju eXXov a iv safiaWuv eq ttjv Arrt/crji/, 
Kai 01 (ppovpoi ^a^apfiiEvoi %ig iv,—Qr]pafjLEvy)q airfiy- 
ytiXzv kv £&/cAr?<7('a ? ort avrov AvaavSpoq teioc; [izv K a- 
r ky^zi (1), ura §c zX eve i (!}.££ ActKz$atp,ova isvai.— 
Kypov TEZvrjKOTOZ o« GTpaTiiyoi eStavpia'Cov, o r i ovte aXXow 

7T E fl 7T O i G7}fJLaVOVVTa O TL ^p7] 7TOIUV, OVT UVTOQ <j> d t~ 
VOir O. Tl(T(TCl<j)£pVT]£ $ia(5oXXEl TOV KvpOV TTpQQ TQV 

aosX(pov ? il»c sir ipovX sv o i a»r<£>. 

6. In oblique discourse, on and dg are usually 
indeed followed by the optative, but even here the 
indicative enters, when actual events and positive 



(1) Present instead of the aorist, comp. § H7 5 Note 2. 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 457 

assertions are assigned. Also the indicative often 
stands in oblique discourse on account of the 
person being introduced as speaking himself, or 
being conceived as speaking himself in the midst 
of the narrative. 

Ot IvSot tAe^av, on it Bfxip b lb g<j>clq o IvSwv (3a- 
aiXevq kcli k £ X b v a bl b v tpwrav, sc, otov o 7roX B/noq urj 
MrjSoic re /cat to) 'A(javpi(D (1). — rQY®")lvaTO f otl f3ov- 
\ o 1 r av airavra ti*) warpi ^aoi££(xS f ai. — httev, o r 1 juc- 
vuv ]3 o v X o 1 r o. — loq bittbv o IZarvoog ttooq QtipajuLivriv, 

OTL Ol/Xto^Erai, £1 yUT7 fflW7T?7<X£lEV, £7T7J£)ETO* aV $£ 

aia)7ra), ou/c apa, £0r?, oifXw^oiiaL ', — OrjpafUBW^ GVfApov- 
Xzihjjv roic 'AStyvaioic 'fXfsfv, wg X P T ^ TrtiScffSai A«K£§ai- 
povloiQ Kai to. ruyj] TTBpmipBtv.— oTrorav jjfq? £?n to Scht- 
vov, \kyoiix av, or 1 Xovrai j3a(7cXEU£» 

JVote 1 . "Ort also often stands at the beginning of a proposi- 
tion, in which any one is introduced as speaking himself, merely 
to indicate that the words of the speaker commence here, and 
without further influence on the construction ; e. g% 'Oporrrjc aVe- 
Kpivaro, otl ov3', el yevolfxrjr 0t\oc, w Kvpe, 001 y av ert tzote 
c)o£atjut. — Kvpog idtov tov Tiypqivrjv, aWo fxev ovMv htyikofypovi]- 
oaro avru), el-tre. tT, otl uq Kaipov ijneig. 

7. Hence the construction frequently varies in 
one and the same proposition, when out of seve- 
ral circumstances adduced one is expressed as 
certain and actual in the indicative^ another as a 
mere opinion in the optative. 

Ourot bXbjov, oti Kvooc p-BV rtSvpfv, Aoiaioc 
$£ ire(j>evytjg eitj /cat Xf-y 01, on ravTr\v ttjv rifABpav 



(I) The king of Assyria. 



458 SYNTAX. 

wepi/nsiveiev av avrovg. — Z avSpzg, ouS' £jue XavSa- 
vu, o t i, zav ctaXviofxev to GTpaTEVjma, ra /iev rifxzTEpa 
aa^evecTTepa yiyvoiT av, to. Se twv ttoAe/uiwv icakw 
av^i] (T £ r at. 

Note 2. When av is added to the optative after on, it has the 
same sense in this combination, as with the optative in an inde- 
pendent proposition. Comp. §. 120, a. 

8. As a peculi ity in the Greek construction, 
we must observe, that the principal proposition 
frequently adopts as object the subject of the de- 
pendent proposition, and the dependent proposi- 
tion is then destitute of a subject. 

'Opag to tt v p, tjg iravrag Kaiei ; — -£*y(*> v fx a g oa- 
<j>iog oi$a.y ore ov y^pr\fxaTO)v dzofxevoi gvv kfxoi e^XS'ete. 

Note 3. After a portion of the verbs, to which the necessary 
amplification is subjoined by means of on and wg, the dependent 
proposition can also take the accusative with the infinitive, (see 
§ 126. 1.) and after another portion of them the participle (see § 
129. 1 and 2.). Also when several dependent propositions are 
subjoined to the principal proposition the two modes of con- 
struction frequently interchange ; instances also sometimes occur 
where they are mingled together, on or iog being retained, but 
the dependent proposition taking the infinitive ; e. g. Avaavdpog, 
ei Tivd ttov 'idoi 'ASrjvalov, a.7r£iT£fji7rev kg Tag 'ASftvag, ddiog, on, 
6(7(0 ay 7rk£iovg ovKhtyvaiv kg to clgtv, Scittov tiov £7riTr)^£t(or kv- 
hiav e ar eg $ a i. — Xenoph. Hellen. II. 2. ^.—eXtti^iu c>e \prjj 
iog avlpag aya&ovg fjeaXXop i) Kaicovg avTOvg yEvif a £G§ai. ibid. 
VI. 5. 42. 

II. Transitive Propositions for assigning the In- 
tention. 

9. The particles made use of for assigning the 
intention are iva 9 owwg, o^p«, wg, layg and ^. These 
intentional particles are connected with the con- 



MODES— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 459 

junctive when the verb of the principal proposition 
is a present or future, on the contrary, with the 
optative, when it is a preterite. 

Illustration. The following proposition will 
serve to establish the truth of this rule : the in- 
tention is an idea, existing in the mind of the 
agent, of a result to be effected by the action. 
The accomplishment of the intention is made 
strictly conditional by the action, that is, the in- 
tention can only be accomplished by the action. 
Hence the intention really exists only so long as 
the action either is performed or is to be performed, 
and must therefore in this case — after a present 
and future—be expressed in the conjunctive. But 
if the action has been performed, the intention 
no longer exists, but the idea only remains, that 
it was performed with a certain intention, and 
therefore in this case — after a preterite—the op- 
tative must be used. 

Asyw, iv e t S y g.—We^a, iv e 1 8 e 1 1) g» — irspifi^vco, 

£WQ aVOl^Sy TO ^GfJllOTTiplOV. 7r£0l£fl£VQ/i£V skclgtots, 

'iiog avot^SsiTj to Szv/LitoTfipiov. — reXeloig rolq av^pdai 
o AvKovpyog vofxifxov £7ron7<T£, koWigtov uvai to SrjpaVj 
ore (i) g $ v v aiv t o Kai ovtoi GTpaTid)TiKovg wovovg vtto~ 
(pepuv. — ovkovv Kai rw yUTOvi (5ov\u gv apzGKav, iva 

GOL KQl TTVp £ V aUT), OTttV TOVTOV §£$, Kttt ajaZOV 

xs goi y iyvt)T a i GvWrjirTiop, Kai, av ti <r0aAAo/u£- 
vog Tv^rfg, zvvoiKwg syyv^Sav poyzy goi', — aTropii), ttyri 

O Kvpog, TTOTZpOV flOl KpUTTOV (f^Tt) GTpaT£V£G%ai £7Ti 

tov Appzviov, q \vgitCKu scurai kv to) irapovTi, julyj Kai 
tovtov 7ro\ifxiov rrpog Toig aXXotg w p o gZwfJitZ a. — 
Ka/ij3uerj7c £?T££ r)KOVGZV av^pog rj&rj £ 'pytt §iaytipiCoii£VQV 



460 SYNTAX. 

rov ULvpov, arrsKaXei c/c rwv M?icWv, o it m g ra e v YlepaaiQ 
kmyiopia t tt ir e\o irj. Kat rov Kvoov &17 svrauSa Xe- 
-ytrat wruv, on cnrdvai f3ov\oiro, /u 17 oirarrip re a^Soi- 
ro Kat 77 TroAic ft£^u<potro ayrw. 

iVote 4. Intentional particles also appear with the conjunctive 
after a preterite in the following cases : (a) when the form of the 
preterite contains the signification of the present; e. g. tyiXovg 
K EKr-q vt a i 01 av$pit)7roif tya £%wct j3or}$ovg, men possess 
friends, that they may have succourers. (b) When the action is past, 
but still exists in its effect, and consequently the intention still 
continues to be pursued ; e.g. Plat. Leg. 2. p. 60. edit. Bipont. 
Seal M.oi)ffag 'AttoXXiovci te jiovariyETijv /ecu Atovvarov ^vveopTaaTag 
hdovav, %'y 1 7T a v o p -9" w v r a t Tag yevofiivog rpofag kv rcug 
kopralg fierd Sewv, they gave, in order to improve (and this regu- 
lation still exists, consequently also the intention). — Thuc. 1. 73. 
7r a p rjX$r fi e v, 6 tt 10 g fir} pyE'uog irepl fXEydXcjv it p ay /jLanov 
X EL i> ov $ ovXev <rr)cr 5" e, we have come forward, (and now 
speak), that, &c. — Horn. II. 1, 158. aol dfx k a -k 6 ji e §\ 6(j)pa 
ait %ai py g, we have followed thee, that thou mayst rejoice, (and 
we are now with thee, so that the joy continues.) — (c) In narra- 
tive, when an intention is assigned, which had a definite existence 
in the mind of the agent, with a prospect at the same time, that 
it would be accomplished ; e, g. Herodot. 7. 206. rovg d/j.<pl Aeojvi- 
t)r)V 7rp<jjrovg d tt e ir e fx\p av 2iTrqpTirjTQi, 1 v a rovrovg bpwvTEg 
01 aXXot GVjifxaypi <rrparEV(ovra t.= — Ibid. 3. 150. rdg yvvdl- 
Kag a tt £w v i£av, "iv a firj a^iiov rov gItov d vat a Lfxw a w <r 1. 
— (d) But in general after intentional particles preceded by a 
preterite the use of the conjunctive, especially with the historians, 
is frequent and common, if the aim pursued by the agent is 
assigned definitely and as a fact, while the optative stands in this 
combination if the writer expresses his own view of the intention 
of the agent ; e. g. Thuc. 1.57. UepftiKKag e tt p a a a e v, 6 tt io g 
TtoXEfiog yevrj fa l avTOig (ro~tg " ASnvaioic) Ttpog Tl.EXo7rovvr]aiovg 
(it was Perdiccas' design to occasion war).- — Ibid. 65. 'ApirrrEvg 
Z,v v e fi o vXev e fiEV, ttXyjv TTEVTCtKoaiiov, clvejxov Trfptiaaffi TOig 
uXXoig EiCTrXEvaqci, o tt a) g ettl ttXeov 6 aiTog d vt i v%y (he ad- 
vised the departure merely that the provisions might last the 
longer). — On the contrary, ibid. 55. (KoplvSioL) tuv KEpKvpaluv 
oKraicoalovg fikv, o'i f\aav ZovXoi, aVecWro, -KEvriiKovTa he Kal hiaico" 
criovg hfjffavTeg EfvXarroy, Kal kv SepcnrEiq ei\ov 7roXXrj, OTtiog 
al)TO~ig rr\v Y^ipKvpav aVa^wpi/crarrfc tc p g 7r o ir\ a e lav (the 
gaining over the Corcyreans is assigned as the supposed object 
of the Corinthians in this kind treatment of the captives). 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 461 

Note 5. On the contrary, intentional particles frequently take 
the optative after a present and future, when instead of an actual 
intention the mere idea of something, which probably might 
happen, is assigned ; e.g. KaXov kari /idj^&rSiu, oVws fiy]ttg 
dovXog fxeXXoi y£vr]ff£(T$aL. — -c> o £ toIq Trroj'yolg, tva kol avrog 
Trap' dXXiov X a j3 o i g -Kevr\g yevuixevog. — iroXvv yjpvaov EK7r i fi- 
7r £ i Trarrip, t v a p) <rndvig fiiov e'itj rolg TzaiGiv. 

10. The particle av enters into combination 
with tog and onwg alone of the intentional par- 
ticles ; but even for this combination the rule of 
construction already (9.) adduced remains in 
force ; e. g. Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 6. 3. ottuq av 'iXew 

Ol ^£01 OVTtQ l)lllV GVflfiov)<£VUV fSfX&XTl, OGOV ^VVCtJULCll 

§ i a r £ X w e7ri(Jie\oviJievog. 

11. The indicative of the future stands after 
ottwc, to express a definite intention, for the ac- 
complishment of which vigorous measures are 
pursued and of which therefore we may enter- 
tain a definite presumption, that it will be accom- 
plished. 

Ol TlepaiKOL vofxoi sTrifJL&XovTai, ottwc TW ap^rjv jut] 
Toiovroi £ g o v t a i oi 7roXirat, oiot (1) irovripov rj aiG~ 
\pov epyov E^iEG^Iai.- — ao^ovroc egtiv, ou% ecwtov jliovov 
ayaSov irapkyEiv, aXXa scat rwv apyofikvuv ETriucXefaSar, 

QTT (3) Q bJQ (5e\tIGTOI £ G O V T a (. GK07TEIV at,l(jj KOIV1J KO.I 

GE Kai EfAE, O 7T d) Q GE /J.7] E TT I \ E I 1p E I ^Ortytara. 

12. Intentional particles are put in combination 
with the indicative of a preterite, when we are to 
assign that something might have happened, 
which has not now happened or cannot now 

(1) For &GTE. 



462 SYNTAX. 

happen, namely, with the indicative of the imper- 
fect and pluperfect, if the discourse is of a conti- 
nuous, with the indicative of the aorist, if of a mo- 
mentaneous event; e.g. Sophocl. (Ed. T. 1377. 

Ti li ov Xaj3wv zktuvclq zvOvq, wq £ S £ i £ a [xtittote e/xavrov 

avSowiroicnv svSev rjv yeywc, that I might never have 
discovered to men, whence I was sprung. — ibid. 1373. 

ou/c av eayrofiriv to /uri Troic\u<jai tovjulov aSXiov Stfxag, t v 

ri v TV(pX6g tz Kal kXvwv juqSlv, that I might be blind and 

deaf. — tyjo>r\v <7£ Tlrjyaaov ££t>£a«, ottwc zfyaivov rpayi- 

kiotegoq, that thou mightest have a more tragical ap- 
pearance. 

13. In the case also, where the particle w\ is 
used after verbs expressing fear, apprehemi&n, 
anxiety, and the like, the optative enters only 
when the fear or apprehension is mentioned 
solely as a circumstance of the past, other- 
wise the conjunctive is constantly adopted, even 
in narrative where a preterite precedes, the 
narrator transporting himself into the period at 
which the fear still exists. 

E7ri(rra<Tac, on 01 <j)o{3ovj,i£voi fx rj <j> v y w a i 7rctTpi$a, 
Kal oi LieXXovTiQ Liayeazai, ceSioteq, jultj r) t t rj S w a" i v, 

aSujuwg Siayovai. Suviog E7TB(p6(5r}VTo, Lirj k ar a X 7) (j>- 

$f € i £ v vno Ttov A$rjvaia>i\- — ot Ksp/cupoioi avrfVXfov TOig 
KopivSioig, ^eiaavTSQ, jutj eg rrjv yr\v atyCov tt £ i p w a i v 
airofiaiveiv. 

Note 6. From the adduced examples it is clear that the con- 
junctive is invariably used after p) even with a preterite preced- 
ing, when the discourse alludes to the actual state of fear and 
apprehension, while the optative stands in combination with this 
particle, to designate only the idea of an impending evil. 



MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 463 

Note 7. M?) is connected with the indicative of the preterite, 
when the event which excites the fear and apprehension is as- 
signed as past, and the apprehension as sufficiently well founded ; 
e. g. Thucyd. 3. 53. vvv Zk <[>opov[Jie$a, firl d^oripuyv ctfia 
7) fiapT-n k a fievy we are now apprehensive, that we have failed 
in both objects. 



§ 123, 



USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE AND 
OPTATIVE IN RELATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

1. The words made use of for designating re- 
lrition are the relative pronouns og, ogtis, olog, ogoq, 
&c. and relative particles, as ov, oVov, iv%a 9 iv^zv, 

oSsv, oiroif oiTOjg, u>c, tva, &C. 

2. The general rule for the use of the different 
modes in relative propositions is likewise defined 
by the peculiar signification of these modes and is 
as follows : the indicative enters the relative pro- 
position in all cases wherein any thing is ex- 
pressed unconditionally and as a fact, even in 
narrative also, where the optative might be ex- 
pected ; the optative is used to designate a mere 
idea, chiefly therefore in assigning not a single 
and definite, but a frequently repeated action; 
the conjunctive stands after relatives in mentioning 
present and future things, to express an assumed 
case or existing intention, and in this last case 
the particle av, in Attic prose always and gene- 
rally with Epic writers and the Attic poets, ac- 
companies the relative. 



464 SYNTAX. 

3. The following observations are suggested 
from this general rule : (a) the indicative stands in 
the relative proposition, when the verb of the prin- 
cipal proposition is a preterite, present or future, 
and an event is expressed as definite and uncon- 
ditional, (b) the optative stands in the relative pro- 
position after a preterite, present or future, to 
express mere thoughts and ideas, (c) the con- 
junctive, can only stand after the present or future, 
and that under the above-mentioned conditions. 

^(jjKpaTfjg ra filv avayKcua avvefiovXeve Kai irpaTTUV, 
tog € v 6 jut i £ £ v apiGT av TTpay%r}vai* irzpi $£ twv a§?i\a>v, 
o 7T to g air oft i] <j o it o, fxavTtvoofikvovg eirsfxinv, u 
Tronqrka. — Al£aj, a rj k o v g a. — ov &o/ca goi o £*£ apyj\g 
ttokjjv av^pCjirovg kir uxpeXsia irpoGZuvai avroig, $ w v 
aiGX av ov t ai, ticaGTa (1) ; — Ya^arag tCov gk^tttov- 
yjjjv vpx e T V Ki/pw, Ka\ 9 o 7r t] kicuvog § izk 6 g jxy]- 
gsv, 7) iraaa kvSov Staira /caSacrrrj/ca. vjg § ^ASov ot 

K\r]%EVT£g £7Tl TO StlTTVOV, OU^, O 7T O V £ T V % £ V, EKCKJTOV 

l/caSi&v, aAA ov fAaXiGTa k r i fi a, ?rapa ttjv cipiGTtpav 
Kvpou *£upa. — GV/ufxa^Eiv Kai 7rpoGkyzw tov vovv TOVTOig 
kxk\ovGiv a7ravTEg, o v g av o p w g i irapzGKevaGfikvovg Kai 
TrpaTTHV kSzXovTag, a XP *i'*' — Xvovgi Girovclag ovy^ oi £i 
Eprijuiav aXXoig TTpOGiovTzg, aXX ot firj f3or}%ovvT£g o ig av 

%V V O jULO G (i) G C. O KvpOC £t TTOpevOlTOy KUl 7t\uGT01 

fxkXXoiev b\f/£G%ai 9 rrpoGKaXujv Tovg (j>i\ovg eGirov^aioXo- 

yuTo, tjg SijAoi?;, ovg rtfta (2). Xenoph. Anab. 
I. 9. 28. — For an example of the conjunctive 

(i) All the organs of the senses. — (2) In order to make known 
those whom he distinguished. Here according to the Latin 
mode of construction the optative n^frj might be expected ; but 
to designate any matter of fact the Greeks use the indicative. 



MODES.— INDIG. CONJ. AND OPT. 465 

after relatives with av, see Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 
1.2. 

4. A relative proposition, in which av occurs, 
is always conditional, but this conditionality can 
either depend upon something real, and then the 
conjunctive enters (see above, examples second 
and third from the end), or upon something im- 
aginary; upon a mere assumption, in which case 
the optative follows the relative w T ith av ; e. g. 

Xenoph. Memor. II. 9. 3. ev US', on umv ev%de rwv 
roiovr(i)v avSptov, o'i iravv av (j> i X o r i firj^l £ i ev cpiXio aoi 

-^prja^ai, they would account it a great honour to enjoy 
thy friendship (if they did so.)— Horn. II. 15. 735. 

t. 7]s nvaq (pafiEV uvai ao6ar)TK}paQ ottiggo), ?je tl thyoq 
apeiov, o k avSpacji Xoiyov apvai, which fortified 

place (if we had such) might ward off. — Soph. 

Antlg. 908. ovk cot a^eX^OQ ocrrtc a v /3 X a. gt o i 

7tot£, there is no brother, who could spring (if there 
were one). 

Note 1. The Attic prose writers always subjoin av in the use 
of the conjunctive in relative propositions, but Epic authors and 
the Attic poets frequently omit this particle ; e. g. Sophocl. (Ed. 
Tyr. 1226. f. tu>v c>£ Trrjfioviov [idXiara Xvtcovg u$ 6 a v w a 
av^raiperoi. 

Note 2. The indicative also can stand in combination with qlv 
after the relative, namely, (a) the indicative of the imperfect and 
aorist, to indicate that something has not taken place in the way 
assigned by the preterite without av : e. g. Plat. Phasd. $ 1. ed. 
Heind. ovre tlq £,£voq dffiKrai %p6vov ow^vov ktcelSev, o a r i q a v 
7/fiiv cra(j>£g ti dyyeiXat olog r >) v, who could have given us an ac- 
curate account (but he could not, because he did not come). — (b) 
In Homer also the indicative of the future, to denote that the 
event is rendered conditional by an idea to be borrowed from the 
context; e. g. II. 9. 154. f. ev 5' avfipeg vaiovai-—, o'i k£ e £w- 

h h 



466 SYNTAX. 

Tivycri, $sov wg r t /.a // cr ov at v, who (if he becomes their lord) 
will honour him as a God. 

Note 3. The infinitive occurs after relatives, when in oblique 
discourse a relative proposition accedes as a nearer definition 
to a principal proposition expressed in the infinitive, in which 
also a circumstance founded only on tradition is assigned ; e. g. 
\6yog k&rl aEifffibv yeriffSai) J fca rep e i Sfj v a i tt\v ohiav. 
—In other cases where the infinitive stands after relative par- 
ticles, it must be regarded as the consequence of a union of two 
different modes of construction ; e. g* Xenoph. (Econ. 7. 29. 
ravra Be, 'itynv, Bel VfJ-dg, w yvvai, elBorag, a e/carepw tiptop ttooq- 

TlTCLKTai VTTO TOV &EOV, TTSipaffSai, O 7T (jJQ (s)Q fiiXrurra rd Ttpoai]- 

Kovra EKaT£pii> ijfjLutv B i air p d t r £ (t $ a i. — Xenoph. Hellenik. VI. 

2. 32,—tovto Eiraivuj, ort EvpEro, 6 ir co § \iy\re dvEiria- 

rtifxovQQ eJvai rcov ilg vavjiayiav, jii]re fipacvrepov ri 

a.(f) ike (j 3" at. —Finally, in many cases also the infinitive after 
relatives must be considered as an absolute form of speech, 
(comp. § 125. Note 3.) ; e.g. ov-% Jf^u, ottoi t pd ire <r -9" a t 
I know not whither to turn myself. 

Note 4. If several relative propositions follow one another, 
which require different cases of the relative pronoun, the relative 
usually stands in Homer only in the first proposition, while the 
second either takes the third person of the personal pronoun 
instead of the relative, or is entirely without any pronoun, 
which latter particularly happens when the relative of the second 
proposition would have to indicate a different object from that 
to which the first relative refers ; e. g. Horn. Od. 70. f. 
dvriSeov TloXvtyrifjioi', oov icpdrog karl fieyiarov iraat Kv/c\w7r£<7<7t, 
Gowtra he piv teke vvfxtyri (for kcli ov). — Od. 2. 54. Boin B' J k' 
eOeXoi, Kal oi KExaptorfiEuop e\$oi (for teal og). — Od. 2. 115f. 
dVa^Si Be fxtv yafxiea^ai rw, orcw, re 7rarrjp KeXerai Kal dvBdvei 
airy (for Kal oarig). 

Note 5. The remaining peculiarities in the use of relative pro- 
nouns and the particular constructions in the formation of rela- 
tive propositions, as attraction, and the like, see above § 99. C. 
to the end. 



MODES.— IMPERATIVE. 467 

§ 124. 
IMPERATIVE. 

1. The imperative denotes that the action ex- 
pressed in the verb is required to take place or 
not to take place, consequently that, in the con- 
ception of the person requiring, it appears as 
necessary. 

2. Hence in Greek, as in other languages, the 
imperative is used in accosting, requesting, com- 
manding, exhorting, &c. Finally it stands in the 
present, when the action is conceived as conti- 
nuous or permanent, and in the aorist, when as 
transient or momentaneous : hence the imperative 
of the present occurs most frequently when an 
action already begun is to be continued, the im- 
perative of the aorist when one not yet begun is 
to be undertaken. 

a p p £ i, oj (J)'l\b ! — a k o v c o v rolvvv, u> Kpoiae. — 

El TIVOQ £Tl £V$£lG%ai &OKZLTE, TTp6g e/Lll A £ J £ T £* KCll ti 

Tig £t7THV ri fiovXtrai, Ai c $aTw. — %i]p a to KaXov, (2> 
Trai ! — 7r £ i S o u toIiq GO<j)(DT£pOig» 

3. If the requisition is to be expressed nega- 
tively, as a prohibition, dissuasion, the negative w 
must always be used. In this case also the impe- 
rative stands in the present, when the action is 
conceived as permanent, consequently always 
when being begun it is to be discontinued. On the 
contrary, instead of the imperative of the aorist, 

h h 2 



468 SYNTAX. 

which should enter when the action is conceived 
as momentaneous, therefore principally, when an 
action not yet begun is to be omitted, the Attics, 
at least, commonly use the conjunctive of the 

aorist ; e. g. /mil fioi avr'iXzyz, and jlitj ^uoi avTiXefyq (the 

former when the contradiction has begun, the 
latter when it is to be prevented).—*^ kXstttb and 
nrj icXtyyg (the former a general dissuasion from 
theft, the latter in reference to a particular and 
individual case), 

4. The Greeks form also an imperative of the 
perfect. Such an imperative denotes either a 
permanent state ; or it refers merely to the recol- 
lection of some past occurrence, and is used in 
assuming that a past action has been performed at a 
different time or in a different manner from what is 
really the fact ; or it indicates generally a perfectly 

finished action. 

K £ k X e I a $ d) J] Svpa (1).— to ajKvpiov a V £ (T tt a" 
(T S (x). — o fxlv XyaTrjg ouroc,' £C t°v TivpKpXsy&ovTa e fi j3 £- 

[3 X ?] G & b). £ K IT £ TT O p%T) G% (i) (2) TJ TpOld fVVfCl 

£T£(Tl irpOTtpOVs £ I O Tj (T 3 W (3) jHOL CLClKtOTSpOV £IVCU TOV 

iKovra xpev^ofAEvov rov aKOVToq.—aXXa ravra ourcu ir c- 
7r p a ^$ u>. 

5. The imperative following owS' on, dl<r%' Z, or 
oI(T^ we, is to be explained elliptically in the same 
way as the English constructions of this kind, 
wherein the imperative, which follows in the 



(1) Let the door be shut.— (2) Let Troy have been destroyed 
nine years before. — (3) Let it be affirmed by me. 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 469 

Greek, precedes ; e.g. olaS" o Spasov ; do, youknoio 
what ?— olffS' wq ir o I r? d o v ; make it, you know how ? 

Note 1. Instead of the imperative, the Greeks frequently use 
the future with the negative ov in an interrogatory proposition, 
principally to express a strict command, which is to be imme- 
diately executed, as we also often do in English ; e. g. ov /x' 
kdaeiQ, wilt thou not leave me ? i. e. leave me immediately. — ovk 
a^e^• , rig TayjLGTa rt'ivSe ti]v koovv, will you not immediately carry 
this damsel away ? 

Note 2. On the use of the infinitive instead of the imperative 
see § 125. Note 2. 

Note 3. That the use of the imperative is circumscribed by 
the adoption of the optative with aV, as a milder and more cour- 
teous mode of expression in requests, exhortations, and com- 
mands, is already known from the doctrine of the optative, see 
ill 9. 3. b. 



D. hifinitive. 

§125. 

SIMPLE USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 

1 . The infinitive expresses the idea of the verb 
in and by itself as a mere idea, and is in so far 
nearly allied to the noun. Hence the Greeks 
also use it in combination with the article to 
as a substantive, adding to it even predicatory 
definitions, although only in the adverbial form. 
Herein it must be observed, that the infinitive, 
even when used as a substantive, takes the sub- 
stantive subjoined supplementally not in the geni- 
tive, but in the case required by the verb ; e. g. 



470 SYNTAX. 

to KaXtog ^prjG^ai Toig Kara rov f5iov aya^loiq, tilt Wise 
Use of worldly goods.— to %vaT0vv avSpwwovg, the 

putting men to death.— to ^kfx^G^ai ry icada, censuring 
the worihlessness . 

2. Such an infinitive with to is also frequently 
used, in Greek, in combination with several words 
which together form a proposition. When com- 
bined with prepositions it is commonly rendered 
in English by the participle. 

Oi/roi ovTtug y$v kart to £^av yjpnfjLara, wg aviaoov 
to aTrojSaXXsi v.~t o kniopKov k a X £ i v Tiva avev 
t o v to. TrerrpayfjiEva § £ i K v v v a i 3 Xoidooia kaTiv. — ttoo- 
uttov TavTa t o v jay} X v £ iv £ v £ /c a Tag (nrovSag. — (TV 
oe, 8 t a ro t,kvog £ I v a c ? ovsc av o'lsi aSiKififnyai. 

Note 1. The infinitive must also be regarded as an absolute 
verbal form, when it is used under the impulse of violent feeling, 
particularly in admiration and indignation. In this case also the 
article to sometimes accedes. 

4>£ti to Ka\ X a j3 e 1 v (1) 7rp6(T(p$Eyfia toiovc' dvfipog ev xpovo) 
paKp<5 !• — <je ravra dp derail (2) — (o Zev, EKyEviaSai (3) 
fiOL 'ASrivqiovg Tiffaa&ail — rfjg TvyrjQ, to ejxe vvv KkqSfEvra <)Evpo 
rvyjTiv ! (4) Xenoph. Cyrop. II. 2. 3. 

Note 2. The Greeks also use the infinitive instead of the im- 
perative (likewise as an absolute verbal idea only), in the Epic 
language frequently, but only rarely in Attic, and chiefly when 
the yet unformed language of children is to be imitated. The 
nominative of the subject is in this case added to the infinitive. 

ISoGT'tjcras cij kireira (pi\7}v eg TrarptCa yaiav, ar/fid te o t %e v a t, 
ko.1 im Kripea kt sp e'i %ai 7roXXa fid\% oarra eoike, Kal dvipi firj- 



(1) O heavens ! to hear, &c. — (2) That thou shouldst do this ! 
(3) That I may be permitted, &c. — (4) The deuce take it, that 
I should just now be called hither I 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 471 

ripa hovvai. Horn. Od. 1. 290 fF. — av c, dv tl eyy (3eXtl6v 
tto-jev Xafielv, tv e i p a c 6 a i teal eiioi fxeraCioovat. 

Note 3. With the particles irpiv and trdpoQ also, the infinitive 
appears to require to be explained substantively or as an abso- 
lute verbal form. Of these two, irdpog, which belongs only to 
the older and poetic language, is always combined with the infi- 
nitive, except where it stands as a mere adverb and signifies be- 
f ore, formerly, in times past : e. g. Horn. Od. 1. 20. f. 6 $ d(T7r£p^EQ 
fxeviaivev dvTi$i<p 'OeW^V, irdpog r)v yaiav iKeaSrai, previously to 
his coming, before he came, — On the contrary, the particle irplv, 
although likewise frequently occurring with the infinitive, is how- 
ever combined also with the indicative and optative, and, on the 
accession of dv, even with the conjunctive, in perfect conformity 
to the rule of the remaining temporal particles ; e. g. evlol, \a$6v- 
reg dya$a, ko.1 I^iovioq 'iyovoiv, r) irplv X a (3 el v, than prior 
to receiving, than before they received, — -mSavol ovriog eIgi tlveq, 

&CTTE, 7T piV ElO E V CL I TO TTpO(jTaTTO\lEVOV, TTpOTEpOV TTElSoVTaL.-— 

ov npocr^EV e^evejkeIv EroXfinaav npbg f)fJ.ag 7t6Xe[jiov ol iroXifiioi, 
7r plv tow (TTpctT-qyovQ yjfiiav a v v £Xa j3 o V.-—6 'Affrvdynv aV??- 
yopsvE fincSiva jjoXXelv, irplv Kvpog e fiTtXr] cr B e l n Srjpojv (1). 
— Ei7rov, /.uiMva tmv otcmtSev KivEioSai, ttp\v av 6 irpoff^EV 
r] y fj t a i. — Toltr^E clei kvavTioQ e\jx\, ol ovk 6"iovTat KaXrjv av 
eyy£VE<r$ai oXiyap^iav, tt plv a v eq to v7r' oXlycjv TVpavv£~icr$ai 
Tjjv ttoXlv k o,t a cft7i (t e iav. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 3. 48. 

3. The infinitive is used most frequently as a 
supplement of other ideas, particularly of verbal 
ideas. 

Illustration. All verbs are divided with respect 
to the idea contained in them into two classes, 
the complete, which express an action finished in 
itself or an independent event, and the incomplete, 
whose idea for its perfect clearness requires a 
supplement andamore accurate definition. Such 
incomplete verbs are all those, which denote an 
internal operation and faculty of a person. These 
on the whole are resolvable into four classes, 



(1) Until Cyrus had satiated his lust for the chase. 



472- SYNTAX. 

denoting either an operation of the will, or of 
thought, or of sensation, or generally the existence 
of a faculty and power . Of these four divisions, the 
first two and the last, taken generally, have the 
same construction, because the contemplated re- 
sult of the internal operation, which the Greeks 
express in the infinitive, must always be supplied 
to them. But verbs denoting an operation of sen- 
sation, require only the supplement of the object, 
to which the feeling is directed and by which it is 
excited, and this is always expressed in Greek by 
the participle. 

4. The verbs therefore, which are followed by 
the infinitive in a dependent proposition, are (a) 
verbs denoting an operation of the will, as to be 
willing, to desire, to strive, to endeavour, to seek, to 
wish ; to resolve, to determine, to design, to purpose, to 
intend, to undertake, to venture, to dare ; to demand, 
to require, to request, to command, to persuade, to in- 
cite, to encourage, to admonish, to exhort ; to let, to 
permit, to allow, to grant, to promise ; together with 
their opposites : to forbid, to hinder, to prevent, to 
dissuade, to refuse, to hesitate, to delay, and the 
like.- — (b) Verbs which denote an operation of 
thought, or an action proceeding therefrom, as, to 
judge, to believe, to think, to suppose, to assume, to be 
convinced, to doubt ; to say, to affirm, to report, to an- 
nounce, to assure, to confess, to deny, to disown, and 
the like.— (c) Verbs denoting the existence of a 
faculty or power, as to be able, to have the power 
or means ? to be in a condition to, to understand, to 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 473 

possess ; to bear, to suffer, to endure; to effect, to 
cause, to make, and the like. 

BovAoucu X t y £ i v. — Ssofiai gov £ X 3 £ I v. — 7rapu)C,vv£V 

£/i£ /JiavSaVElV. £7T£l<y£ flE TropeveaSai. — o 

(j>l\0Q £To\jLLr](JE TOVTO 7T O I S L V. £7T£ra£;£ /ULOl TdyjiWQ 

w o o q £ X S £i v. — Savwv o 7rarr)p EVOvSzrrjGS tovq 7rai^aq 
ffw^ovfi v. - * - £^uoi*Y£ Sokei tCjv KaXiov k ayaSwv avdpojv 
££)"ya ou {JLOvov ra juleto, (nrov$r)Q TrpaTro/ueva a^tofivrj/uovEVTa 
£ i v a i, aXXa Kai ra kv raiq iraiciaig. — Gf^utcrro/cXric 7rojg 

£7TOU1<TZ TTJV 7ToXlV (j> I X € I V CIVTOV ', 

Note 4. Although in the given verbs the use of the infinitive 
in the dependent proposition is the ordinary construction, yet 
much must be observed with reference to the individual cases. 
On the first class, verbs of willing, it must be mentioned, that 
after to be willing, to strive, to incite to persuade, &<tte is also 
sometimes added to the infinitive, which happens most frequently 
after tzeISelv. — After verbs to request, to exhort, the intentional 
particle ottuq also with the requisite mode is frequently used : 
also to request sometimes takes the particle el after it, to give it 
an air of great courtesy. — After verbs to forbid, to hinder, to pre- 
vent, to refuse, to take heed, to beware, the infinitive is usually 
joined with fx{j ; e. g. aVayopeww firi 7roifj<yai apTrayrjp, I forbid to 
plunder. — In like manner after some verbs of the second class, 
fir] sometimes accedes to the infinitive, as e. g. after to deny, to 
disown, and generally also after dizicrreiv, not to believe ; e. g. 
apvovfiai fxrj elcivai, I deny that I know. — 'A^nvaioi ov Trapyarap 
reus vavcrlv, dniGrovvTEc avrbv jir} rjfeir, because they did not be- 
lieve that he would come. — Of the third class it must be observed, 
that verbs which signify to bear, to endure, usually take the sup- 
plement in the participle, vt:o\xeveiv alone being always construed 
with the infinitive. — 7tole~lp to effect, to cause, is generally fol- 
lowed by the simple infinitive, sometimes also by the infinitive 
with uktte, but Ka^LGTavai, which is used in the same significa- 
tion, always requires the participle. 

5. As verbs add the contemplated result in the 
infinitive, so with adjectives also, the respect, in 



474 SYNTAX. 

which the idea of the adjective finds its applica- 
tion, is supplied in the infinitive. 

Otroi or/ iKavoi r e p 7T £ ( v iipaq <paivovrai,~—ov Zuvoq 
£<tti A £ y e i v, aXX aovvaroq a ly a v. — avys cokuq £7U~ 
Trj^eioq ravra ir p a r r £ t v.—a^ta karlv r) iroXig 6 a v- 
ju. a £ £ o* 3 a i, — -paSiov £<jti TctVTa v o tj a a t. — yaXzizov sari 
X £ y £ t v npog yciGTtpa, wra ovk iyovaav. 

Note 5. The infinitive of the passive occurs more rarely after 
such adjectives, as the infin. active is usually adopted even where 
the sense requires the passive ; e. g. rjdv (egtl) aKoveir. — Savpa 
I h £ cr 3- a i. — tovq gtcolviovc, I B e 1 v (1) orrpartiyovQ vroWd vopi%u), 
iov hei Trpa^rjyaif Traptevai. 

6. The infinitive is even added to complete verbs 
and to entire propositions, to indicate the destina- 
tion of an action or the aim and intention, with 
which it is performed, 

O Kvpog gtoXtjv uXero rrjv Mi}§mc?jv avrog tb (j>£petv 
Kcti tovq Koiviovag ravTYjv tirwitv sv^vea^ai. rjscopev pav- 
S a v a v. — Travra irtyvice /cat fX clggov g% ai (2) — Aaioc 
ot^wcri flovKoXoiGiv s k & £ t y a i fip£(j>og. 

Note 6. So also must the infinitive be regarded which the 
Greeks use in short intermediate propositions, sometimes with 
sometimes without we, to assign the aim or definition of an 
expressed proposition ; e. g. ctTrXwe siiriiv, to speak plainly. — we 
ziroQ uTCEiv, so to speak, if I may so speak. — we ev icatyaXaia) el- 
7teii>, to speak briefly t to be brief. — we epe ev pepvrjcrSat, if I re- 
member rightly. — we piKpbv peya\a> slicdaai, to compare small 
with great. — oaov y' epe eifiivai, as far as I know. — epol honeiv, 
as appears to me, 

7. If the principal proposition stands in a cau- 

(1) That are seldom seen, or rarely to be seen.— (2) Every 
thing is so constituted by nature, as again to decay. 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 475 

sal combination with the dependent proposition, 
so that the state denoted in the dependent ap- 
pears as a consequence of the event expressed in 
the principal, the dependent proposition takes 
(ogre and more rarely ug in combination with the 
infinitive. 

2o)/Cj0arr?c i)v 7TZ7rai()evpzvog ovrojg, 10 a r e iravv paSlujg 
€%£iv apscovvra. — (^iXoTi/JLorarog r\v o ILvpog, oj g t e 
iravra v ir o p nv a t tov eiraivtiazai £V£/ca. 

Note 7. I regard as the consequence of an event not only that 
which has been developed out of it by actual experience, but that 
also which, according to rational calculation, might result or 
which would seem to have resulted from it. A distinction must 
therefore be made between real or actual and ideal or conjectural 
consequences. This distinction the Greeks observe also in lan- 
guage, designating the actual consequence by uigrs with the in- 
dicative ; but the conjectural consequence by Cjcte with the 
infinitive. Hence the indicative always stands after wqte, when 
a real event is assigned as having resulted from another ; e. g. 
elg tv\v varepaiav ov^rjKEV 6 Ti(T(Ta(pipvr)Q, w a S - ' ol "EAX^vec 
e <j) povri £o v (they were really in apprehension, and that because 
he did not come). — For several examples of the use of dlgre with 
the indicative, see Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 4. § I. § 3. § 5. VII. 5. 
§ 39. § 50.— Memorab. II. 2. 3.— Anab.I. 9. 28.— CEcon. 1. 22. 
On the contrary, the infinitive stands after togre, to express only 
an imaginary consequence of something, therefore (a) when a 
quality of an object is assigned as the ground of a general relation 
of the same, as in the above cited examples to the rule, and in 
every general proposition with ogrig, as, e. g. ogrtg ovrio avo-qrog 
Z(ttiv> wgre ttoXe/hov dvr'Eiprjvrjg at peUffS at, tovtov \iaivo\XEv6v 
(fta/xev. Hence the infinitive stands also after r) ugre preceded by a 
comparative; e. g. dtypoviffTEpoi eigiv i] ulgre aicrSareorSat rfjg 
£7n(3ov\fjg.—(b) The infinitive likewise stands after digre, when 
the principal proposition is negative ; e. g. oh Siofial ye tovtiov 
ovShog, uigre ae kiv^vvevel v. — (c) Also when the principal 
proposition is hypothetical or interrogative ; e.g. el towvtov serai 
to fiEyaXa izplirrEiv^ io gr£ pi] o'lovte eI vcil fiijr d}i<p avrov ff%o- 
Xrjv e'xav, fxriTE pEra ru>v (j)iX(ov EvfpavSfjvai, lyw jiep ^aipeiv 
ravrr\v rrjv Evhaifioviav keXevio. — dp ovrwg dvaiffSrjTwg £%£i£, to gre 
fxr} dyavaKTElv fxrf^E ro~ig vppet xp^^oig ;— (d) When the con- 



476 SYNTAX. 



sequence appears at the same time as the aim or intention ; e. g* 
log kfiov cJiropovvTog, 6 tl av rvypifii 7roicov, wj te icakcog e\e t v to. 

rifierepa , avfij3ov\EVETco 6 n rig bpq. avfKpopcorarov. Xenoph. 

Cyrop. VII. 5. 47. — ol rpiaKOvra kfiovkn$r](mv 'YXevaiva e£,icico~ 
tratrSai, cogrE £~ivai trtyiGi Karaipvyriv. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 4. 
8. comp. Thucyd. 3. 114. — Hence the infinitive stands also after 
e<f>' to or eif cote, which is put by attraction for kirl tovtlo, cogrE. — 
Lastly, cogrE takes also the infinitive, when it is used in oblique 
discourse ; e. g. ovnog, Etyavav, 7rpo$vfjL£~i<rSai rbv aroXov, cogr 
eSeXe l v elgtyiptiv, kgli <)iaKiv()vv£V£iVo 

Note 8. "Ogre also frequently stands at the beginning of a 
proposition, as a strong illative particle, in the signification there- 
fore, for this reason, and then always has the indicative, or, in 
accosting, the imperative, as Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 3.18. cogrs $ap- 
pEL k. r. \. — If the consequence be expressed only as a conjec- 
tural assumption, cogrE is followed by the optative, to which the 
particle av also accedes, having in that case the same sense as with 
the optative in independent propositions ; e.g. Xenoph. CEcon. 

1.13. e'i rig %pfro rco dpyvplto, co gr£ kcxkiov to acofxa e x° h 

■ 7rd)g av etc to dpyvpiov avrco cotyiXifiov eir? ; — Xenoph. Me- 

mor, III. 1. 9. ovk k^ic^a^EV, cogrE avrovg av yfJ-dg 3£oi rovg re 
dyaSovg Kalrovg xaxovg tcplvEiv. — Comp. Cyrop. I. 1. 4. — To as- 
sign that the assumed consequence has not occurred, cogrE requires 
the indicative of the preterite with av, e. g. Xenoph. Agesil. 
1.26. cogrE ri]v irokiv ovrcog rj y i\ a co av rroXifxov kpyaarrjpiov 
elvai, so that you would have taken &c. 



§ 126. 

ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE. 

] . In this construction of the accusative with 
the infinitive, which belongs peculiarly to the 
Greek and Latin languages, two cases are to be 
distinguished. For either the infinitive stands 
absolutely for the formation of general expressions 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 477 

and the adjectives and substantives, attached as 
definitions of predicate or subject, are put in 
the accusative, or the infinitive stands depen- 
dency, as supplement to an incomplete verb, and 
takes the accusative of the subject of the depen- 
dent proposition. This latter description of ac- 
cusative with infinitive can occur after all verbs, 
to which generally the infinitive accedes as sup- 
plement (see § 125. 4.). 

G v 7/ r 6 v 7T£(j>vK£vai. — to djuapTavtiv av% pojiro vg 
ov Xav/LiciGTOV* — ov^bv kirpay^r} dia to £(C£ivov fxri wa- 
peivai. — Hep^ijt; a>c £7rv%tTO tov E X X 17 a tt ovt ov kZr 
fv^Sai (1), /cat tov ' A S a> Si£cr/ca<j)3ai, ttjOotj- 
ytv £/c 2aj0c)£an>. — KiXtvio <r £ irapsivai. — aSvvaTOv 
iroWa t £ y^v d) /iiev o v a v % p to ir o v iravTa KaXcog 

7T O I £ I V. ITt«JC OlOV Tc, T CLV T CL, flTjCEV O fJ. O I a OVT a 

aXXrJXoie, it a v r a fcaXa Etvat. — Ka^juo v (j) a a 1 
tov ' Ayrivopog £K <poiviKriQ vwo tov (3aGi\£wg air oa r a- 
X r] v a 1 TTpog ZftTriGiv Eu|0a>7rrjc. 

Illustration 1. In dependent propositions after 
the three adduced (§ 125. 4) classes of incomplete 
verbs, this construction may be explained by con- 
sidering the accusative as object to the verb of 
the principal proposition and the accompanying 
infinitive as an illustrative specification of the 
state, in which the object is conceived to exist; 

e. <f. tov SavaTOv iiyovvTai kqkov eivai — here tov SavaTOV 



to 



iiyov 



(4) That a bridge had been thrown over the H. 
11 



478 SYNTAX. 

would be the object to fiyovvrai, they esteem death, 
— uvai would be an illustrative specification of the 
general relation in which death is conceived, and 
kcikov a more definite specification of the particular 
relation. Now, if we assume this to have been the 
original use of the infinitive in combination with 
the accusative, the accusative, with the indepen- 
dent infinitive, may be considered as an unneces- 
sary imitation of this once usual combination of 
the accusative with the infinitive. But if the 
accusative, with the independent infinitive, be 
esteemed the original and fundamental usage, this 
accusative admits of no other explanation than as 
the accusative of nearer definition (see § 104. 
Note 6.) ; e. g\ zivai avSpwirov, to be a man. 

Note 1. That the dependent proposition can also be formed 
with on and wq, has been already shewn above § 122, 

Note 2, After the passive expression XeyErat besides the no- 
minative with the infinitive (made use of by the Latins with 
dicitur, traditur , fertur) the accusative can also stand with the in- 
finitive, as Xiyerai admits of being taken both personally and im- 
personally; e.g. Xiyerai 'E/X7T£ c>o/cAi?c elg rovq Kparijpag rf]Q 
A!'iTvr]Q evaXaaSai teal city a v i a § fj v at, Empedocles is said 
to have leapt into, &c. (Xiyerai as personal and consequently 
'E//7i\ as subject belonging thereto.) — Xiyerai r r) v Xl/uaipav 
t pa<f>rj vai vko 'A/xtcw^apov, it is said, that, &c. (Xiyerat con- 
sidered as impersonal). 

2 e When the subject of the dependent propo- 
sition is at the same time the subject or object of 
the principal proposition, it is not repeated with 
the infinitive nor is it indicated even by the ac- 
cusative of a personal pronoun, but the infinitive 
then stands alone. 

10 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 470 



O/uoXoyw a§iKuv.-—o (jiiXog e(j>7] (T7rovSa££iv.-"~S£OjU.ai gov 

7TaTfp< 



eXSeiv. — ovk £7reiGa rov irarioa tovto iroiuv. 



Illustration. 2. Since, according to the above 
illustration, in the construction of the accusative 
with the infinitive, the accusative, in a dependent 
proposition, is not required by the infinitive, but 
must be considered as object to the verb of the 
principal proposition, the use of such an accusa- 
tive is only necessary when a new object is as- 
signed, which has not yet been mentioned in the 
principal proposition ; e. g. vojui£w ae '^x av XpV ara 
(where as indicates an object not yet mentioned). 
On the contrary, if the object is already con- 
tained as subject or object in the principal pro- 
position, its introduction with the infinitive ap- 
pears unnecessary, the correct reference being in 
this case self-evident ; e. g. vopllu) iyziv y^^fiara 
(where the addition of hpk would be superfluous, 
because the eyw implied in vo^lla) is already suffi- 
ciently expressive). 



§ 127. 
ATTRACTION IN THE INFINITIVE. 

In the last mentioned instance where the sub- 
ject as being already contained in the principal is 
not expressly introduced into the dependent pro- 
position, if predicates are added, these cannot 



480 SYNTAX. 

stand in any other case than that of their subject* 
Now as this, if it is at the same time the subject 
of the principal proposition, stands in the nomi- 
native, but otherwise in one of the oblique cases, 
the infinitive therefore also occurs in Greek with 
the nominative, genitive and dative. This kind of 
construction is called attraction, because the de- 
finitions given in the dependent proposition are 
regulated by the structure of the principal pro- 
position and consequently are as it were attracted 
by the same. 

Examples of the nominative with the infinitive. 

O A\eE,avdpog tyaaicev eivai Atoc viog. — etreiaa 
avTOvg e i v a i S £ o g.—~ri aWo r] Kivdweveeig E7ridei!~,ai } 
av (1) fj.lv XpV 0" to q r£ Kai (j> i\ ao z\ (j> o q eivai, 
eKeivog c>£ <p a v X o g re km ovk a£ io q evepyecriag ; Xe- 

noph. Memor. II. 3. 17.— ovkzttI tw SovXoi, aXX' 

»,' y " v \ i t > / 

£7Tt T b) O fX O lO I TOiq AeiTTOLieVOig £ I V a I eKTr£jH7TOVTai 

61 anoiKoi. Thucyd. 1. 34. 

Examples of the genitive with the infinitive. 

Ttov vvv AvKiiov tyaiievwv S a v 3 i (ov eivai ot ttoX- 
Xqi eiaiv eir^Xv^eg. — e^eovro avrov eivai 7T o o S u- 

fx o v. — £i fS^Xae tcaravouv, evpr)aeig~ troXXovg rvpav- 

vovg Kai vtto yvvaiK(ov nov eavrcov Sie^appevovg, Kai 
vtto eralptov ye twv fiaXiara §okovvt(ov <p i\ <o v eivai. 

Xenoph. Hier. 3< 8.— Comp. the last example 
under the dative with the infinitive. 

(1) av is repeated here simply on account of the strong an- 
tithesis heivoQi ' • 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 481 

Examples of the dative with the infinitive. 

Hv ziriyoypiov avroig fxi} o p a azl a i ttb^j it o p ev o- 
fievoig. — g> Zev /uzyiGTE, <$6g fioi (j>avj}vai a^ioj fxlv 
UavSeiag avSpl, a^ioj c)£ Kvpov (j) iX to. — ovk a\\o- 
tpioig vfxw yjpwiizvoig napa^uyLiacTLV, aXX oikuoiq, w avdpeg 
Axrivaioi, evdai /uocriv £$£tfrt yeveoSai. DeniOSth. 
Olynth. secund. 7. — i8o$E Tolg rwv 'EXX^vtov orparrj- 
yoig, avGKZvao~af.iz.voig a ziyov Kai zt,oirAiGa- 
fievoig Trpoievai, zojg Kupw GVjxiii^ziav . Xenoph. 
Anab. II. 1. 2. — odonrfo Z7rzyzipy}Gav Trpog tov j3acri- 
Aza 7ToXejU£iv, cnraGi gvvzttzgzv, e£ aSoJtov jU£V yEVfcrScu 
Aajxir po ig, zk -rzvi]Ti.ov $£ 7r X o u c i o i g, zk Tcnruvtov 
0£ TroWrjg yjopag /ca* ttoXewv Seinroratc. zyw §' ot>/c 

£AC TtoV TOIOVTOJV jUzWd) (T£ TTdpaKClXuVy aXX £/C TtoV c\)$av- 

rtov y£V£cr^at arqwv. Isocrat. ad Phil. p. 100. 
B. ed. Stephan. 

Note 1. In the case even where the article to or the particle 
were is attached to the infinitive, the predicates, if they refer to 
the subject of the principal proposition, stand in the dependent 
proposition in the nominative. 

' Ollwlll TrdvTctQ Seovq, fi-rj av eXiarSai tyjv (oaaiXiojg dpxijv 
<jlvti tov k aXo g e iv a i. — >/ rrjg ^v\r\g (f>iXia, <$ia to a yvr) 
el v a i Kai aKopEffToripa kariv. — ovZe\q TrjXtKovTog egtlo 7rap' 

VLlil/f IOQTE TOVQ VOLIOVQ TT d p (X (j CL Q Lii] 3 OV V CL I dlKTJV, 

Note 2. This attraction is omitted in the following cases ; 
(a) when the subject belonging to the infinitive is separated from 
the infinitive by a long intermediate proposition, so that the re- 
ference might not be easily understood, the predicates stand with 
the infinitive in the accusative, without regard to the case of the 
subject to which they belong ; Xenoph. Anab. I. 2. 1. IS ev i a 
ru> 'Apfca^t, og avrto 7rpOEiaTt]K£L tov ev Tcug ttoXectl Zevlkov, 
7} kelp TrapiiyyEiXE \a/3ovra Tovg avSpag. — Herodot. 3. 17. 

fiovXEV O fXEV U) %£ 01 E^ofe, ETTL fXEV K<Xp")(r]()OVlOVg TOV VaVTLKOV 
CTTpaTOV CLTTOar-EXXElV, ETCL $£ , AfXjXWVlOV g TOV TTE^OV Q. TV O K p l- 

v a vt a. — Eurip. Alcest 369- — 372. el ft 'Op^ewc liol yXioaaa Kai 

i i 



482 SYNTAX. 

f.ii\oQ irapijv, we rf)v Koprjp Ayfir]Tpoe fj tceivrjc iroaiv^ v\ivoiai Kt\- 
Xrjcraprd (1) v kl, "Aidov \aj3e~iv, KarrjXSov civ. — Plat. Alcib. 
secund. §. 33. Tvdvv dpa aoi ci&ov Q.yairq.v, el tCjv arparaorMV 
fieXrloji' el, dXX ov npbg rovg ruiv dvrnraXwv iiytfiovag dirofiXi- 
ttzlv, ottote ktCEiviov JjeXticov yivoio <r kotz ov vra, Kal dffKovvra 
(2) irpbg tKelvovg. — (b) When the subject is a person and re- 
quires also to be expressed distinctly and prominently in the de- 
pendent proposition, the infinitive, in perfect conformity to the 
Latin mode of construction, takes a personal or reflexive pro- 
noun in the accusative ; e. g. Euripid. Alcest. 657. Kal fi ov 
vofxi^u) 7r at B a a 6 v ir e tyv k eva i (for ov io/jli^oj ttouq ooq ire<f)» 
— Herodot. 2. 3. ol Alyv7rrioi, irplv fxey >/ ^ajjijiirt^ov ctyiojv /3a- 
(riXevcrai, ev6fii£ov e<ovtovq TrpiorovQ y eve cr$ai. Tzdvrwv dv- 
$pu)7rwv (for kvofxi^ov irpwroL yevicrSai). 



(1) Where KrjXyjrrag might be expected on account of the tyw 
contained in Karr]X%y. — (2) Where atcoirovvTi and daKovvrt might 
be expected on account of the preceding d%ov l\v croi. 



USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 483 

CHAPTER IV. 

Use of the Participle and of the absolute Cases. 



§128. 
PARTICIPLE IN GENERAL. 

With the Greeks, who form a separate participle 
for almost every tense, its use also is much more 
frequent and diversified than in other languages. 
Of this use, however, two cases are chiefly to be 
distinguished : (1) The participle in a depen- 
dent proposition, as a supplement to an incomplete 
verb, where the English language often employs 
the infinitive or the conjunction that. (2) The 
participle in intermediate propositions to assign 
nearer definitions which belong to the principal 
verb or refer to a noun in the principal proposi- 
tion. 



§ 129. 
PARTICIPLE IN DEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 

1. In the illustration to the division of incom- 
plete verbs (§ 125) it has been declared, that 

i i2 



484 SYNTAX. 

verbs which express an operation of sensation take 
the supplement in the participle. To this class 
belong (a) verbs expressing a perception by the 
organs of sense or by internal comprehension : 
to see, to observe, to remark, to perceive, to discern, 
to conceive, to comprehend; to hear, to learn, to 
understand ; to feel, to he sensible; to know, to have 
an idea, to recollect, to remember, to be mindful, to 
reflect, to consider, to forget. — (b) Verbs which 
denote a state of feeling ; to be glad, to be sorry, 
to be angry, to be indignant, to be afflicted, to be asham- 
ed, to regret, to repent. 

2. Besides these the following verbs also take 
the supplement in the participle : (a) verbs ex- 
pressing an action or a state by which a percep- 
tion is occasioned, as to show, to make manifest, 
known, or clear, to indicate, to prove, to evince ; to 
he shown, to appear, to be manifest, clear, known, or 
certain, it is evident, it is obvious, it is plain, and the 
like. — (b) The verbs to commence, to begin; to cease, 
to cause to cease, to finish. — (c) The verbs to allow, 
to consent, to permit ; to bear, to suffer, to endure, to 
be content, to submit. 

3. After all these verbs the Greeks use the 
participle in the dependent proposition. Since 
therefore such participle always assigns in the 
supplemental proposition a state of an object, ex- 
pressed or indicated in the principal proposition, 
its case is determined by the noun of the principal 
proposition to which it contains the predicative 
definition. Hence arise the following cases : 

(a) If the subject belonging to the participle is 



USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 485 

at the same time the subject of the principal 
verb, the participle stands in the nominative. 

Oio\i SvrjTog to v (1). — opto £ £a fx apr a v o> v.' — 

LlZ/ULVr}<JO CL V% p (i)7T O Q W V. ' &iaj3£j3X?]/U£VOC ov 

fxav&avug ; — ol ASrjvaioi LierzutXovTO Tag Girov^ag ov 
^ £ $ a jU £ v 01 (2). — aiwyyvouat ravra iroifjaag. — - 
^Xoc kariv aSiKa ttoiwv (3). — (jtaivBTai o voLiog i]img 
pXcnrr w v. — apZopai $ i§ eta k (*) v ek rCov Sawv. — 
al hir&vfiiai aiKi^ofxevai ra GWfxaTa rwv av^puj- 
TTdiv Kai rag \pvyag ovttotz Xiijovgiv, £or av itpyjoviv 
avTwv.- — Kai aXXa ys S17 uvpia kiriXuiru) Xzywv. — wav- 
aaaSe a$ ikovv t z g. — tyavepog riv o Kuooc, u rig rt 
ayaSov rj /ca/cov Troirjcrafv avrov, viKav n z ip w /mev o g, 

(b) If the subject belonging to the participle 
stands with the principal verb as proximate ob- 
ject in the accusative, the participle also stands 
in the accusative. 

Ovg av opuj ra KaXa Kai to. ctya^la sir it r)$ zv ov- 
t a g, Tovrovg TiLir\ab). — oi§a avrov irorz rrpog rov lirwiav 
roiaSz SiaXzySzvra (4). — 01 'AStyvcuoi ZTravaav avrov 
gt p aTK]y ov v t a (5).— 'tovuov yrjpag ov^zttojwotz -ye- 
zourjv TY]g z/urig vzorrirog aa^zvzarzpov y 1 y v 6 jli z v o v. 

(c) Lastly, if the subject belonging to the par- 
ticiple stands with the principal verb as remote 
object in the genitive or dative, the participle in 



(1) I know that I am mortal. — (2) The Athenians repented 
that they had not accepted the composition. — (3) It is evident 
that he acts unjustly. — (4) I know that he had once the follow- 
ing conversation. — (5) Deposed him from the command. 



48G SYNTAX. 

that case also is regulated by it and likewise takes 
the genitive or dative. 

' HiajtiGai TTtdwoTe jaov i} ipivSofiapTvpovvTog, 

1] GVKO<paVTOVVTOQy 7) (j)l\0VQ 7} TToXlV UQ GTO.GIV 

£ fxp aWo vr oq, 7] liWo ti cl^ikov it p cltt o vt oq ;-— 

rtazo/nriv avriov o i o ft e v to v ft vat GO(pWTaTU)v (1). 

ov$hq 7rd>7ror£ ^(OKparovg ov^lv «(T£|3£c ? ov§l avomov, 
ovte it p ar r o v t o q £t^£Fj ovre Xeyovrog rjKovaev* 

— -OV^tTTOTE ^£T£/U£Xr/(T£ jiWL G I *y 7] <T « V T I (2), (j) S £ *y £ «~ 
juiv(i) C£ TToWllKiq* TI [101 GVVOlGZd TOIOVTOV £ I p J CL~ 

<r aft, i v o) ; 

iVote 1. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, the 
participle can be put in either of two cases, according as it is re- 
ferred to the subject contained in the verb or to the pronoun. 

Svvutda e/iavTu) a o (j> 6 q w v.— aavru avvrj^eig d () i k o v v t c. 
— oi&a (TatyiOQ EfiavTOv ovk ififj-epovra rrj 7rp^.6rrjTi. — eavrov 
ovSe^ic 6fj,o\oye~t KctKovpyog 10 v or KaKovpyov ovra. 

Note 2. That the case of the participle is regulated by that of 
a noun in the principal proposition, depends upon the same prin- 
ciple with attraction in the infinitive (see § 127) and consequently 
proceeds from the circumstance of a dependent proposition 
having no subject of its own. In few instances, and in those 
only where the participle should stand in the nominative as pre- 
dicative definition to the subject of the principal proposition, the 
subject of the dependent proposition is indicated by the accusa- 
tive of a personal or reflexive pronoun, and the participle then 
stands likewise in the accusative ; e. g. SophocL Trachin. 709. 
oput di fi epyov deiroi' I %'e i p y a a jjl k v t) v (where one would 
expect to find fie omitted and i&tpyacfiivri).— Xenoph. Cyrop. 

I. 5. 10. 7T£pL£~lhoy aVTOVQ T'/f^ CLCVVCtTOVg y £ V & }l £ V O V Q. 

Note 3. The impersonal expressions it is known, manifest, evi- 
dent, it is shown, it is plain, it is clear, and the like, are expressed 
personally in Greek ; e. g. cfjXog 7\v dvuoiiEvoc, it was evident that 



(1) I perceived that they fancied themselves very wise.— (2) 
To have been silent. 



USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 487 

he was grieved. — Qavepol kyhovro <bevari£ovTEQ, it became known 
that they 'practised deceit. — \ptvd6flevot tpaiveaSe, it is apparent 
that you tie. 

4. The participle is connected with these verbs, 
because in the dependent proposition a state is 
assigned, in which the subject or object of the 
chief proposition exists. The reason for the use 
of the participle disappears, therefore, when a 
state is assigned after these verbs, which either 
has yet to take place or in general merely might 
take place, and in that case the verbs are followed 
by the infinitive. The verbs which occur in this 
fluctuating construction sometimes with the par- 
ticiple, sometimes with the infinitive, are as fol- 
low : 

(a) The verb to be ashamed takes the participle 
when the action of which one is ashamed is per- 
formed, the infinitive, when the action is declined 
through shame; e.g. Xen. Cyr. III. 3, 13. a\\' 
to-wc aiayvvy \kyuv ravra (thou art ashamed to say 
these things and therefore dost not say them.) — 

lb. § 35. syu>^ Se vjliiv wapaiviov, ttoiovq rivaq y^pr\ 
sivai fv rw TOiuSe, aiayyvo'ifxr\v av I should be asha?n- 

ed, were I indeed to admonish you, — (where the 
admonishing is conceived as a real action in 
the accomplishment.) — Plat. Phaed. § 79. ovk 
kiraiayyv%aofiai ipsaSa i, I shall not be ashamed to 
ash (the asking yet impends). — aiayyvopai iroinaaq 
I am ashamed to have done.—ausyyvonai -n- o i ij <r a i, 
I am ashamed to do (and therefore decline). 

(b) The verbs to commence, to begin, take the 
participle, when the assigned state has already 
taken place, the infinitive,, when it is just about 



488 SYNTAX. 

to take place ; e. g. o ^ijixwv vpyeTo yiyvzo^ai, the 
winter began to come on (it approached, but was 
not yet arrived). — o ye^itov ripZaro y^vo^voq, the 
winter was come on. 

(c) The verbs to hear, and to learn, take the par- 
ticiple, when a fact is adduced, which we per- 
ceive with our own ears, the infinitive, when some- 
thing is assigned, which we hear from the narra- 
tion of Others ; e. g. r}KOvaa tov ArijULOcrStVYi Xiyovra 

or tov Arj^oG^ivovQ Xeyovrog, I have heard Demos- 
thenes speak (I myself heard his voice.)— a/covw tov 
Aniio<&ivr} X e y e i v, I hear (I am told) that Demos- 
thenes says»—\§uv ewSsvfi2i o ' Karvaynq tov Kvpov, on 
riKovs KaXov Kaya%v uvtov elvac. Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 

3. 1. 

(d) (j>aivt(£iai in the signification to be evident, to 
be manifest, takes the participle, in the significa- 
tion to seem, to have the appearance, the infinitive ; 

e. g. Xenoph. Symp. 1. 15. a/ma Xkyiov TavTa aafytog 

k X a i £ i v tyaivBTo, he was just as though he wept, 
kX aid) v £<j>aiv£To would be : he evidently wept. 

(e) Verbs to declare, to announce, to show, 
take the participle, when something is announc- 
ed or shown as a fact, the infinitive, when it 
is assigned that something may or is said to 

be ; e, g, airrjyykXXzTO TloTi^aia it oX to p k ov jjl kv jj 

(when it is certain that it is besieged).— aiTr\yykX- 
Xfro TTortoam ir oXiopK^ia S at (in intelligence 
merely resting on report.) 

Note 4. That the dependent proposition can also be formed 
with on and we? after all these verbs, is already known from 

§ 122. 4. 

5. To some verbs, which merely express sub- 



USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. "" 489 

ordinate definitions of an action ? the Greeks add 
the participle of the verb which expresses the 
principal action. Such verbs are : rvyyavw, Xav- 

%avw } <j)%av(t), ^tarcXew, ^layivofxai, SUifii, xaipa) and 

olyopai, which in translation are sometimes ren- 
dered by adverbs. 

Ot ottXltcii, ot srv^ov irapovreg (1), eporj^Sovv. 
— tXaSgv (2) a^cvra rravra Kal Kara^Xe^SfV- 
r a. — ffXeicTTOV *ys coicei avrjp liralvov a^iog tivai, bg av 
<j>Zavg (3) rovg fiev 7ro\Bjj.iovg Ka/cw£ tt o i w v, rovg Se 
(pi\ovg ti> £ p yer to v.- — § i ar er eX e k a (4) (j>tvy(t)v to 
pav^avuv ri 7rapa rivog. — -ov&v a^iicov § i ay sy £vrjfj.at 
7rotwv(5). — ol Scot "fcaipovai TipjttEvoi (6) v7ro 

TU)V CtV%p1j)7r(i)V. O SoOXoG <£> )£ W K £ I <j> £ to V (7) TCL Tto 

ctGTTOTy a<j>aip£%£VTa, 

Note 5. The verb rvyyavt lv is often used in this manner, when 
it is impossible to be expressed in translation, since the Greeks, 
to designate the absence of human intention and will, very fre- 
quently join it with those verbs also, which without it express a 
mere occurrence of nature or of chance; e. g. trv-^e 3-avwV, he 
was dead, — rvyyavovaiv e^ovteq, they have. 



§ 130. 
PARTICIPLE IN INTERMEDIATE PROPOSITIONS. 

1. The participle in intermediate propositions 
either forms (1) explanatory collateral definitions to 

(1) That happened to be there. — (2) Unperceived. — (3) First. 
— (4) Always. — (5) I have never committed injustice.— (6) 
Gladly receive honour.— (7) Had hastily carried away. 



490 SYNTAX. 

single words of the principal proposition, which 
we express by the relative who, which ; or it de- 
notes (2) relations of time, expressed by the Eng- 
lish particles while, after, as, when, or (3) relations 
of cause, like the particles, because, since, as, or (4) 
condition, like the particles if, although. The 
case of the participle in intermediate propositions 
is determined by the noun of the principal propo- 
sition, to which it refers* 

ASvvarov woWa T£pwjit£vov avOptoirov iravra 
kciXioq 7roiuv.' — aSoSol ovtzq ol evvovy^oi irapa roig 
aWoig avOpwTrotg $£G7Totov ttriKvpov ceovTai. — -ya\e7rov 
kaTi Atyav Trpoc. yaGrkpa, tbra ovk e^ovGav. — a^iKU 
Sw/cparrjc, ovg fxlv r) troXig vojjliCu Szovg, ov v o jx t- 
Z, (o v.- — 2 to k p ar r\ g §e tt i gt evtov Zeoig, 7rwg ovk ci- 
vai Steovg kvofiiCzv ; — to awfia GvvrjpfAOGTat g o i, juiKpov 
fiepog Xaj3ovri (1) Ikclgtov. — ov^lv diatyspu no kA£7T- 
tovti, jueya rj G/iUKpov vfyeXopEVU) (2). — S&vSpa pev 
TjuijSfvra Kal k oirivT a raying ^verai, avcptov oe 
§ taipS a p ev t b)v av%ig rvytiv ov pac^iov lori. — <j>i\ovg, 
ovk eySpovg, &£i tivai rovg pzWovTcig airpofyaaiaTovg 
GVfXfxayovg £G£G%ai, Kai jutjte kin roig ayaOoig tov hpyov- 
rog <j> $ o v fi a o v r a g, pire kv toiq KaKoig ir p o $ to- 
go vr ag, 

2. In like manner the participle is also put with 
a verb, where it refers to the subject contained 
in the verb* 



(1) So that thou bast received. — (2) Whether he has stolen 
much or little. 

13 



USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 491 

"RvSaifAtov taofAat y i y v to <5 k to v Efiavtdv. — ravra o?/ 
o p (jjvt e g ov zappsirz ; 

3. Most frequently however the participle is 
used in intermediate propositions, to bring several 
actions enumerated in a proposition into the pro- 
per connection with each other. 

4. For every occurrence either consists of a 
simple action or is formed by the combination of 
several co-operative actions and conditions. In 
the latter case a mutual relation obtains between 
the single parts of the occurrence, whereof one 
either precedes another in time or is founded 
upon or developed out of another. In English 
all the single parts are frequently enumerated 
together independently and connected by the co- 
pulative particle and; but in Greek the principal 
action alone is definitely expressed, while all that 
preceded it in time or co-operated towards its 
establishment or formation appears in the parti- 
ciple. 

S^oXaoriKoc oiKiav n pi a fxev o c, tt)q SvpiSog it p o- 

Kv\pag, rjpdjra rovg Trapiovrag, a irpsiru aiirw 7] oacia. 

ourw S« Tag yviouag £)(av, wg, kav n 3^, 7r\evaT£ov tig 
rag vavg avroig z }i p a a iv (1). 

Note 1. Frequently such participles may be best and most 
conveniently expressed in English by a substantive with a pre- 
position, frequently by an adverb. 

Aa'(/>rtv tov (3ovko\ov Xtyovai Tty^evra (2) eKreS'fjvai kv 3d(pvr] f 



(1) That, as soon as it is necessary, they should embark on 
board tha ships and sail away. — (2) After his birth, 



492 SYNTAX. 

oS'ey ical to oyojaa eXafiev.—dp'xofievoQt in the beginning, origi- 
nally.— teXevtiov, in the end, at last. — ^Laknribv \povov, after some 
time. 

Note 2. The participles ex<j)v % dyiov, tyipuv, xpwfiEvoQ are fre- 
quently translated in English by the preposition with. For the 
Greeks use these participles to designate certain kinds of connec- 
tion more accurately and demonstratively, than can be done by a 
preposition, namely lyuv, when objects are assigned which we 
possess or which depend upon us ; dyov with objects which we 
move along, drive, or transport ; (pepiov, when the discourse is 
of burdens and conveyance ; xpwfiEvoQ, in assigning means, pro- 
perties and conditions ; e. g. utpfiwcrev £%wv diaicofflovg oTrXirag.— 
dvex&pnvav ayovTeg fioancrjftara iroXXa lie rife ^wpag. — ol Srepd- 

TTOVTEQ ijKoXovSoVV tyipOVTEQ 7X1 GKE V7/.-= — TEyvn %ptO{XEVOQ TCLVTa 3l£- 

Trpa^a. 

5. If the article accompanies the participle it 
is to be translated : that, who, which, and such a 
participle connected with the relative and the 
infinitive, is frequently used in Greek for com- 
pressing two or more propositions into one. 

Ey to ov tovq TrXuGTa h yo v r a g /cat §v\cltt ov 
Tag irXuara zvSaifxovtGTaTOvg Tjyov/xai.- — kiziiva £§/Sa£ev, 
a tovq ei^oTag kvofxi'Ct /ulya <I> <p sXfjcreiv (1).— skzivo, 

f.lOVOV Slf^TJEC; a TOVQ l$OVTa,Q TjJUTO T£%VY}K£Vai (2). 

6. A participle connected with the article is 
also often used instead of a substantive, wherein 
it is merely to be observed that a substantive 
added for supplement is not put in the genitive 
but in the case governed by the verb; e. g. ol 
i-ftovrGQ, those thai have, the rich.*—oi aywvilo/mevoi, 



(1) Which he thought would greatly benefit those, who knew 
them. — -(2) The eye-witnesses of which he believed to be 
already dead. 



USE OF THE CASES ABSOLUTE. 493 

the competitors. — o rove Swoa/cac woiwv, a maker of 
coats of mail. — to &SicSc, fear. — to fiovXofxtvov, the 
ivill. 

7. The participle of the future is used to ex- 
press intention or destination, where we use the 
words to, that, in order to, in order that. 

Eyw \pyofxai vjmv ETTt/covp^ffw v. — tte/uLttu o 07C07rao- 
\r}g Tiva ay ye\ ovv t a ravra rtf) Kupw. — top etdi- 
Kovvra irapa rove,* cWacrrae aysiv $a St'jcqv ^logqvtcl (1). 



§ 13L 
CASES ABSOLUTE. 

1. The whole usage hitherto developed of 
the participle rests upon its being employed 
as an appendage to one of the nouns in the prin- 
cipal proposition, on which account it stands in 
the same case with it, and is dependent upon 
the verb of the principal proposition. But if the 
participle receives a new subject of its own, it 
forms with the same a distinct member in the 
proposition and both are put in a case which is 
independent of the principal verb — case absolute. 

2. When the participle in this manner receives 
its own subject and forms a separate member of 



(l) That he may suffer punishment. 

16 



494 SYNTAX. 

a sentence, it is used to designate a relation of 
time or to assign a cause. Since therefore defini- 
tions of time and cause are expressed in Greek 
by the genitive > (see § 108. 2. i. and § 109.), the 
participle with its subject usually stands on such 
occasions in the genitive — genitives absolute. 

Euw)£0i//x£ve«jv(l)r<ljp ttoXs^uiwv kakio (2) rj 

7To\iq, £ K £ IV OV £ l 7T 6 VT O Q TTaVTEQ £<Tiy(j)V. S 1 £ O V 

C I $ o v "r o Q (3) ovSlv layvu (pSovog. — ovk av ttXovgkjj- 
repa elri rj w6Xig 9 jrpocro^wv avrri ttXeiovwv y e v o- 
fxivb)v\ — ovrw rov atdvog tt p o k z y^u) pr)Ko t o q 
p,a\a $t) TrpeafivTriQ wv o K.vpog a(piKVUTai elg YLepvag to 

£/3§O^LtOV £7Tt T1]Q O.VTOV CLp^ffg, 

Note I. If a longer historical period is to be assigned by this 
genitive, the preposition inl is usually added ; e. g. eitl Kvpov 
jiaoriXEvovTog, under the reign of Cyrus, that is, as long as he 
reigned. 

3. As the dative also is frequently used in 
Greek for definitions of time and to assign the 
cause (see § 106. 1. b. and d.), datives absolute 
also occur, although much more rarely than geni- 
tives absolute, and therefore care must be taken 
not to consider passages of ancient authors as 
proofs of this usage, where the dative can by any 
means be explained in a dependent sense. 

IlfpilOVTl T U) hviCLVTli) (4) (jtaiVOVGL iraXiv ot 

£(j>opoi typovpav £7n T))v ' HXiv. — £ ipyo/u&voig av T o ig 



(1) At the time when the enemies were feasting. — (2) See 
dXiaKofiai, § 84. — (3) If a god bestows a thing,— (4-) As the year 
came to a close. 



USE OF THE CASES ABSOLUTE. 495 

(1) rr)Q %a\a<jGTiQ k at Kara yr)V ir o p 9 ov fie v o ig, eve' 
y^eipriGav riveg irpog 'AOrivaiovg ayayeiv Tr\v ttoKiv. 

4. Accusatives absolute stand in Greek only in 
those cases, where, in relating another's actions, 
the narrator assigns by conjecture the motive 
which influenced the agent. The participle is 
then accompanied by the particles wc, are (be- 
cause, since, seeing that, as) and toa-rrep or tog av 
(as if), and the use of the accusative must be ex- 
plained elliptically as dependent upon a verb, to 
suppose, to believe, to imagine, which is indicated in 
the particles tog, &c. 

Tovg vmg ot Trarkpeg eipyovoiv airb rtov irovripiov av 
OpioTTDv, w g rrjv fmev twv ^ojjffrwv ofiiXiav a g tc ij- 
a iv ovGav (2) r7)g aperrig, r tj v Sf twv irovr]pu)v, k a- 
r a \v gi v.—— ryvyero irpog rovg %eovg cnrXiog r ayaSa 
c^iSovai, tog rovg Seovg KaXXiGra ei^orag (3), 
OTroia ayaSa kariv, — tp'iXovg /uev Kriovrai oi avSptonoi, tog 

fiorfitOV StOfJLtVOl, TCOV $£ Ct&X^WV ajieXoVGiV, VJ G 7T £ p £K 

iroXirwv fxlv yiyvofievovg (4) <j> i X o v g, £$ aSeXtptov 
$£ ov y ty v o fievov g. — ol TroXejuioi, tog ewpiov rrovovvrag 
rovg Gtyerepovg, irpovKivrjGav to GTi<j>og, to g w avGO ju £- 
v ov g tov Suoy/iov, cVcc G(pag ISoiev irpogopfir)Gavrag. 
Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 4. 21. — oi woXe/Moi eLGrrjKeGav, tog 
av, eneidri ug ToZevjLta ye ayucoivro (oi MrJ^oi), gtt)go- 
jli e vo v g, wGTrep tcl nXeiGra eitoStGav ttoiuv. Ibid. §. 23. 



(1) Because they were cut off from the sea. — (2) Since (as they 
are convinced) intercourse with the good promotes virtue, &c. — 
(3) Because (according to his belief) the gods knew best.-— (4) As 
if friends were formed from fellow-citizens, &c. 



496 SYNTAX. 

£7TOptVOVT0 9 to) Q OV^EVO. UV \ f) <T 0. V T 0. T a TOV jU£"yt<F~ 

tov %eov ar\fxzla, — Ibid- I. 6. I, 

Note 2. The use of the accusative absolute, however, is not 
necessary in this relation, since genitives absolute are more fre- 
quent even in connection with the adduced particles. 

o. If in an intermediate proposition one of the 
relations, which are otherwise designated by ge- 
nitives absolute, is to be expressed by the parti- 
ciple of an impersonal verb, this subjectless par- 
ticiple then stands in its absolute form and hence 
originate nominatives absolute. 

Atari fj-kvug, k£6v (1) amivai. — alaj^pov jucvroi, w 
vmvla, tov /3ouXouwov kv rp ttoXu aTparriyuv, k%ov (2) 
tovto fxaSziv, a/LizXrjaai clvtov, — jitEia tu MjjSi/ccl Tijg 
AaKi^aifXOvlwv ttp^jig kcli rjysfxoviag a7njXXa-y»7Mev, ovSlv 
irp o gr\ k ov (3) fiaWov ti kicdvovg nfuv % rj Kal rtp-ag kicd~ 
voig k7riTaacruv,—o § kjnog ttcuq /3aXwv, oh§kv S k ov (4), 
/carajSaXXat rr\v apKTOv* — ol Kep/cupcuoi kickXtvov Kopiv- 
ziovg Tovg kv YLtt ic a /nv to) fypovpovg re kcli OLKrfTopag ctTrayeiv, 
b) g ov fUBT ov (5) avTOig Em^a/ivou. 

Note 3. The nominative absolute is also used in impersonal 
phrases formed with kcrrl and a neuter adjective, where a partici- 
pial construction enters ; e.g. limiovov, it being just.— ddvvarov 
oV, as it is impossible. 

6. When examples of the nominative and ac- 
cusative absolute occur in Greek writers in any 



(1) As or since you are at liberty.* — (2) As or if he has an op- 
portunity. — (3) Since it just as little became them.— (4) Which 
was by no means necessary, ought not to have been done.— 
(5) Because they had no right in Epidamnus. 



USE OF THE CASES ABSOLUTE. 497 

other relation than those assigned (4 and 5), they 
are all to be regarded as consequences of a de- 
fective construction or of a too compressed mode 
of expression. 

Tavra Se £firi^avaro f 'Iva ol SuwSf/ca irr) avn et, etewv 
yivrirai, a I vvtcreg rj/xepat 7roisvjU£vai (1). 

Herodot. 2. 133 Kal yap rriv Kavvov rrpoTBpov ov 

/3ovAojU£V7?v (jvfifiaykuv, a>c kvkirpr\(jav rag Saooic, 
Tore a<j>i kcu avrrj irpogeyevsTO (2). Herodot. 5. lOo. 
— bkeivoi $£ t'l qe\% ovt tg (3) avv roig virrj^Taig, 

uTTtv o KpiTiag. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 3. 54. — evnv- 

Bev, ctvSrjv rp'nroSog £/c y^pvaov Aaj3a>v (4), Qoipog fit 

£7T£^e ^vpo. Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 945 f. — vvfiuov 

<)£ TOVTOJV' £ % O V T £ £ ^WpaV , K £ K T t] JU. £ V O I Tpi" 

TjpSig , KpaTOVVTBQ , KCU 7TOOC. TQVTOIQ £ l" 

§ 6 t eg — ■ — * o/lkjjq ovc^ev tovtiov wpag £7T^O£. IsOCrat. 

Paneg. 31. ed. Morus. 



(1) The nights being made days. — (2) An evidently de- 
fective construction, the writer having thought of some transi- 
tive verb, as TrpogiXafiov, or the like, but afterwards choosing the 
intransitive expression 7rpogeyeveTo, and repeating avrrj therewith, 
as an indication of the subject. — (3) Where the writer intended 
immediately to proceed with the relation sIXkov diro tov /3wjuov, 
which follows in the next proposition, but first cursorily inserts 
the command given by Critias. — (4) Where Orestes narrates 
further of himself as subject, although Qolfiog becomes the true 
subject in this proposition, and therefore strictly Xdfiovra ought 
lo stand dependent upon eirefji\le fii. 



k k 



498 SYNTAX, 



CHAPTER V. 
On the Use of Particles, 



§ 132. (137.) 

IDEA AND DIVISION OF PARTICLES. 

1. Under the name of particles are usually 
comprised all kinds of smaller words, from the 
employment of which language derives connec- 
tion, distinctness, perspicuity, energy and brevity* 
To particles therefore belong prepositions, (which, 
having been already treated of, we shall here pass 
over), also all conjunctions and lastly negatives. 

2. Of conjunctions we first distinguish three 
principal classes, namely, (I) particles employed 
to invigorate discourse and to give strength and 
prominence to single ideas ; (2) particles serving for 
the external connection of propositions ; (3) par- 
ticles denoting an internal connection of proposi- 
tions. 

3. The last assigned class of particles is again 
resolved into the following subdivisions : (a) tem- 
poral, (b) causal, (c) illustrative, (d) intentional, 



USE OF PARTICLES. 499 

(e) conditional, (f) consequential. But as all these 
particles and their combinations have been treat- 
ed of above in the doctrine of the modes (§ 
121 — § 123), the following remarks are confined 
solely to the two first of the assigned principal 
classes. 



§ 133, (139.) 

PARTICLES FOR THE INV1GORATION OF DIS- 
COURSE AND FOR THE HEIGHTENING OF 
SINGLE IDEAS. 

1. ys, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens 
the word, which it follows, above the rest, and 
thus strengthens the idea of the same. It is fre- 
quently joined to pronouns, particularly personal 
pronouns, and is often also to be put in combina- 
tion with other particles, from which it usually 
stands separated by one or more words. Generally 
also it is used in rejoinders and answers, either 
to confirm or to restrict; also in exhortations, to 
render them more impressive. In English the 
sense of ye in most combinations can only be in- 
dicated by heightening the tone of the word to 
which it refers, frequently also it may be trans- 
lated by at least, now, however, yes, quite, very. 

k k 2 



500 SYNTAX. 

4 Qg clttoXoito Km aXXog, orig TOiavra ye pe(oi, SO may 

every one perish, who does such things ! — o §1 yepixaliov 

\afie \eipi TvSuSriQ, fxeya epyov,o ov §vo y av^pe (j>epoiev, 

otot vvv fipoToi aari, which even two men could not bear, 
Sec- — E-ywye, I for my part (always in opposition 
to others). — wavv ye, very much, surely, certainly. — - 
7rpo%fjiri(jo/ L iai, to y e/jlov jnepog, at least, as much as in 
me lies. — eiKorwg ye, quite naturally. — ye %i\, really, 
certainly. — ye rot, at least however. 

2. irep, likewise enclitic, is in signification in- 
timately allied to ye, and denotes, conformably 
to its derivation from irepi, comprehension or 
inclusion, whence, like ye, it is employed to 
strengthen single ideas. It very frequently 
enters into combination with relative pronouns, 
as also with temporal, causal and conditional par- 
ticles, to confirm their signification. The sense 
of this particle also is generally indicated in 
English merely by a stronger intonation of the 
word, although it frequently also may be trans- 
lated by very, ever. In combination with a par- 
ticiple we often translate it by although, or how 
much soever. 

Aeyei, awep \eyei, SiKaia iravra, he says all, whatever 
he does say, justly.- — piireav t6v$, ayaftog wep etov, airo- 

mpeo Kovpriv, and thou, be thou never so excellent (that 
is, however excellent thou art), deprive him not of 

the virgin. — ev^vg iropeveranrpog tov Kvpov ywep tiytv, 

just as he was.—eiirep, if at all, provided that, if in- 
deed.— e net we p s seeing that, since.—- Kalwep with 
a participle, although. 



USE OF PARTICLES. 501 

3. &'j denotes the dejiniteness and certainty of an 
expression. Its most frequent occurrence is in 
combination with adverbs of 'place and time, to 
restrict their indefinite sense to some certain 
point, like the English just, even, now, only ; also 
with interjections and interrogative particles and 
in exhortations for stronger emphasis, like the Eng- 
lish but, then, well, nay. It is also used, when 
in the midst of a narration real events are brought 
forward, and generally in definite and emphatical 
affirmations as a sign of authenticity, like of a 
truth, surely, certainly, really, assuredly. 

TIupaGO/jiai §?) /ecu £ycu aoi ovtojq U7reiv,well I also shall 
attempt, &C. — §« $?] TrpaoTBpov 7T(i)Q cnroKpivEG%ai, one 
must indeed &C. — tovto apa ra> eXev^epio irpkiru, /ecu rtu 

Si/ccu'w §y], and certainly to the just. — aye <$rj, well then ! 
well now! — tl Sri ; what then ? — vvv S^justnoiv.-— 
£/j ttov or Srnrov, truly, no doubt, I should suppose. 



§ 134. (138). 

PARTICLES FOR THE EXTERNAL CONNECTION 
OF PROPOSITIONS. 

1. The parts of a proposition are connected to- 
gether externally, by being either one united to 
another or one opposed to another. 

2. In the union of the members of a proposition 
to one another, two cases are possible ; namely 



502 SYNTAX. 

either several subjects are assigned, as participa- 
ting in common in certain predicates, or several 
predicates are enumerated, as belonging to one 
subject. 

3. In opposition between the members of a 
preposition it is declared generally, that one 
exists in a different relation from the other. 
This also is possible in two ways ; namely, the 
opposition either depends upon a difference of 
the subjects conceived with unlike predicates or 
upon a difference of the predicates conceived in 
one and the same subject. 

4. As particles for uniting together the mem- 
bers of a proposition, the Greeks make use of kcu 
and the enclitic tz 3 the use and distinction of 
which are pointed out in the following observa- 
tions : 

(a) Kal and re serve for the simple union both of 
single ideas and of entire parts of a proposition. 
The connection by ts is more usual in the elder 
and poetic language, than in Attic prose, and ge- 
nerally this particle is not merely put once be- 
tween the two ideas to be connected, but joined 
to each of the connected parts ; e. g. irarrip avfyiLv 
re %swv re, the father of Gods and men. — This con- 
nection by t£—te occurs with Attic prose writers 
only in the union of strongly opposed ideas — -as 

e. g. tykpuv y^prj to, re daifiovia avayKaliog ra te awo twv 

TroXfjuiwv ovfymW Thucyd. 2. 64. With Homer 
however frequently and with the Attic poets not 
rarely in the union of kindred ideas. If more 
than two ideas are connected, Homer proceeds 



USE OF PARTICLES. 503 

with the repetition of re, — as II. 1. 177. alu yap 
toi epic re (j>l\r] 3 ttoXsuoi re, payai re, or after having 
several times repeated re then uses Kal — as Od. 3. 

413. f. 'E^e(j)p(t)v re, ^rpariog re, Ilepcrevc r,' Apjroe 

re, Kal avriSsog Opacxvuri^c,— or interchangeably 
re, Kal, re. With Attic prose writers, in whole 
series of words enumerated either as subjects to 
one common predicate or as common predicates 
to one subject, the two first are generally con- 
nected by re teal, but all the rest by the simple 

Kal, 

(b) re /cat connects more closely than the simple 
Kal and is chiefly used, when ideas are to be re- 
presented as united in one supposition. Hence 
this kind of combination is also chiefly used, when 
opposite ideas are to be assigned as closely con- 
nected ; C g. yjCH]GTOi re Kai irov^poi, — ayaSa re Ka\ 

/ca/ca. For this reason we also say aXXwq re Kal (in 
other respects, on other grounds and also) par- 
ticularly also, especially, because aXXw? already ex- 
presses a natural and strong antithesis to that 
which follows. 

(c) /cat — ml, as well — as, both — and. This com- 
bination can only be adopted, when the combined 
ideas are of different kinds, but never in those 
which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several 
substantives can always be connected by Kai — 

Kai, — e. g. airtKTUvav Kai Trai^aq, Kai yvvaiKaq, — but of 

adjectives only those which contain nothing ho- 
mogeneous in their idea ; e. g. av^puirovq svpjj&zfe 

Kai aya^lovq, Kal KaKovq, OX Kal ?rev)jrac, Kal wXovaiovq 



504 SYNTAX. 

and the like, not 7roAic /ecu jUtyaXjj /ecu 7ro\vav9pu)Ttog f 
but juizyaXri re Kal TroXvavOpcowog, 

Note 1. Originally re appears to have been the copulate for 
the annexation of every cursory allusion in discourse. In this 
manner we find it still used in Homer, who joins it to temporal 
and causal particles, but chiefly to relative pronouns and par- 
ticles, to indicate the natural connection of propositions, which 
obtains in the use of these particles. 

5. Of the particles employed in the opposition 
of members of a proposition, we here adduce only 
fxkv and Se and remark thereon as follows : 

(a) The opposition in which one member of a 
proposition stands to another can be stronger or 
slighter and in both cases the Greeks use fikv and 
Se for connection. The English particles indeed 
and but can only be used to designate the stronger 
opposition, and hence we are often deficient in de- 
finite expressions for the Greek fxiv and U, which we 
then translate sometimes by and, also, sometimes 
by but, on the contrary, yet, sometimes by partly — 
partly, as well— as also, sometimes finally by now, 
moreover, and the like. 

(b) When fxLv is put in the first member of a 
sentence, the thought necessarily turns to an op- 
posite member with dL Several cases neverthe- 
less occur, where, with ulv preceding, the expected 
Si does not actually enter* Namely either (a) the 
antithesis to the member formed with pw expressly 
exists, but declares itself so clearly by the position 
and subject that U can be omitted. This is chiefly 
the case when temporal and local adverbs are 
used, which stand in a natural opposition between 



USE OF PARTICLES. 505 

themselves, as e. g. ivrav% and l/ca, ttowtov and 
iiruTa, &c. — Or (|3) the antithesis is indicated by 

another particle, as ctAAa, avrap, avre, &c. — Or (y) 

the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not 
expressly assigned in the discourse. This is 
chiefly the case when personal and demonstrative 
pronouns are used at the beginning of a proposi- 
tion in combination with pfa ; e. g. syw plv Trpoypri- 
ixai, I have formed the resolution (another probably 
not). — teal ravra /jIv $rj roiavra, these things are so cir- 
cumstanced (but others differently). 

(c) Although where ^v occurs SI must be sup- 
posed to follow, yet reversely SI does not neces- 
sarily imply a preceding fizv, but can be joined, 
without jidv preceding, to every proposition con- 
taining a further developement and division of 
single consecutive circumstances, although the 
connection is then not so close and essential, as in 
the use of julv and SI. Also §£ is frequently used 
at the beginning of a discourse which appears as 
antithetical to one previously adduced ; or in ad- 
dresses and questions, or in answers, where it al- 
ways indicates an opposition conceived in the mind. 
— At the beginning of the subsequent proposition 
SI can only stand when a temporal or conditional 
particle is used in the antecedent proposition. 
Finally, in all the cases here specified this Greek 
particle is in general incapable of translation into 
English. 

Note 2. Both \ikv and li are usually placed after the first 
word of the proposition. If the first is a preposition they can 
stand after the second word. With the poets however li often 
obtains an earlier position in the proposition. 



506 SYNTAX, 

§ 135. (147.) 

NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

1. The Greeks employ for negation the two 
particles ov (owe, ov%) and jurj, whose composition 
with other particles produces a double series of 
negatives, which in certain combinations of pro- 
positions and under certain relations of sense are 
used interchangeably according to the same rule, 
as the simple ov and fin themselves. 

2. Although the English, like other languages, 
possesses only one expression for both particles, 
yet between the use of ov and fin in Greek a defi- 
nite and important distinction obtains. 

3. In general this distinction is correctly de- 
signated by saying : ov denies positively and di- 
rectly, fifi, on the contrary, denies prohibitively 
or conditionally. Hence ov is used to deny a 
thing itself, fin, on the contrary, to deny the sup- 
position of a thing. 

4. Hereupon is founded the following general 
rule : ov stands as negative particle in an indepen- 
dent proposition, whether expressed as an asser- 
tion, or as a question, or as a subjective opinion, 
and likewise in all cases where an idea is nega- 
tived in and by itself : pi, on the contrary, denies 
in conditional propositions, whether they appear as 
really dependent upon an expressed principal 
proposition, as in assigning intention and in 



USE OF PARTICLES. 507 

the investigation of a contemplated result, or the 
dependence lies merely in the imagination, as in 
conditional and assumed cases, or in the expres- 
sion of a wish, of a command, of exhortation, of 
fear and apprehension. 

5c The following remarks lead to a right appli- 
cation of this rule in single cases : 

(a) A whole and independent proposition, whe- 
ther pronounced as an absolute assertion, or as an 
opinion and view, or as a question, can be nega- 
tived only by the particle ov. 

Ovsc ayazov r\ iroXvicmpavia. — ovk av ayairioriv Ka- 
Xeu&at cnriGTog. — ri yap o v irapeGTiv * 

Note 1. If fx{] stands in questions, it indicates that the enquirer 
supposes something to exist which he does not wish ; e. g. dpa 
/x?) icaKol <paiv6fie$a; do we not appear as bad? — jxij cWet cm; 
does it appear to you ? 

(b) pi on the contrary appears as a negation : 
(«) after all particles expressing condition, sup- 
position and intention. 

El /mri opzioq Xiyu), gov zpyov, Xa t upaveiv Xoyov Kai 
iXeyytiv. — ev vio zlyov tovq zgttXovq tov Xijuevoq Epxcppa^ai, 
o 7T o) g [xrj ij role 'ASrjvcuoic k^o^fxiaaa^ai kg avrov. 

Note 2. If oh occurs after intentional and conditional particles 3 
it does not negative the whole proposition but only an individual 
idea thereof ; e.g. el ovk earepriSrjQ, if thou hast been undeprived* 
— 7rooS'v^u?/o-o/xat, 6-kmq ov% varep^aw, I shall take pains, to come 
(not too late) at the right time, 

(j3) After relatives and with participles, when 
these likewise express a condition. 

Tig $£ Sovvai ^vvarat trtpw, a fxr) avTog tX H > w ' 10 cciu 



508 SYNTAX. 

give a tiling to another, if he has it not himself? (on 
the contrary a ovk avrbq iy*i 9 would be : that which 

he has not himself)— -ov^uq Ararat y^pr\paTa, Offtic 

jULTi irapsffTcii, who is not there, or, if he is not there*— 
o pi) TTiGTevojv, if a person does not believe. — b pr) (juXo- 
ffofwv, if any one does not philosophize (on the contrary 
o ov $iXoao$Cov,one that does not philosophize).— Eurip. 

Phoen. 814. ov yap, b pr) KaXbv, ovttot £(j>v koXov. — • 
Xenoph. Anab. IV. 4. 15. ouroc yap sSo/ca Kal 7rpoT£- 
pov TroXXa 7]&rj aXriZzvaai ToiavTa, to, ovtci te toq bvra, 

Kal ra. pr) bvra Cjq ovk bvra, if any thing did not exist, 
he assigned it as not existing. 

(7) With infinitives, whether they be depend- 
ent upon a verb or accompanied by the article. 

'Avay/crj tovto p r) iroiuv. — to p rj 7raffSrivai fxoi aiTiov 
aoi twv KaKU)v.' — ivopiaav avTOv p rj fiovXeozai paXXov 
7] p i) cvvaazai. 

Note 3. In narration, when the negative assertions of another 
are adduced directly as his assertions, ov stands with the infini- 
tive ; e. g. ovk e^eXelv tyrjcri, he declares that he positively will not. 

($) pr) always stands with the imperative, as 
also with the conjunctive which is used instead 
of the imperative (see § 124. 3.), and with the 
optative when it indicates a wish. 

M rj irpaTTZ rouro. — p rj tovto $pa<njq. — pr) TavTa yk- 
vn)Tai. — pr) i)pai(Jiv iKoipr\v (1). 

(e) Lastly, pr) always stands in a negative an- 
tithesis, which refers only to a part of the preced- 

(1) A form of imprecation : may I not live another summer. 



USE OF PARTICLES. 509 

ing proposition, not to the whole proposition (on 
the ground that the part of a proposition always 
appears as dependent). 

'AXrjSeiav Sa ugkhv, KspSog tl iraokyovaav Kai fir), 

when it brings gain, and when not. — apa Sa fxe napa- 
yeveaOai rj fii) ; must I be 'present, or not ? 

Note 4. Ov, on the contrary, denies the whole proposition, the 
whole assertion ; e. g. apa del fie irapayevia^ai, 7) ov ; must I be 
present, or must I not ? — Set tovq ayaSovq (pikelv, rovg fie fir) rotov- 
tovq o v, one must love the good, and those, who are not so, one must 
not love. 

6. All nearer general definitions (any where, at 
any time, any thing, &c.), joined to a negative 
proposition, must be compounded with the nega- 
tion which negatives the simple proposition. 
Such accumulated negations in Greek do not 
destroy, but strengthen and confirm, each other. 

Ol)$eiQ 7TW7T0TE ^OJKpCLTOVQ OV^EV CLGtfilq, OV^l 
CLVOGIOV) OVTE TtpaTTOVTOQ £10£V, OV7£ Aeyovroq rjKOV- 

gev.- — raWa rtov fir) ovtojv o u S £ v i ou^ajuij ov S a- 
julw q ov^Efiiav Koivojviav £)(£i. 

7. Also the two negations are often combined 
together so as mutually to restrict or confirm 
each other. This can take place in a two-fold 
manner, according to the order of position, thus 
either ov fir), or fir) ov. In this combination, as in 
all other cases, oh denies objectively and fir) sub- 
jectively. Hence, ov fir) implies the idea of no 
apprehension being entertained that a thing will 
take place ; pi oh, on the contrary, the idea of an 
apprehension being entertained that a thing will 



510 SYNTAX. 

not take place. Hence are derived the following- 
observations. 

(a) ov firi is an intensive and emphatical nega- 
tion, and indicates the imagination of a thing, 
which should not and must not take place ; e. g. ov 
firi^vgjLLEVjig icy epilog, that thou wilt not (J. expect) be 
ill-inclined towards thy friends \ that is, be not ill-in- 
clined towards thy friends. — a\\' oviroi e£ efiov ye fir) 

fiaSriQ t6$£, yet never (must thou expect), that thou 
wouldst learn this from me, that is, yet never shouldst 
thou learn this from me. 

(b) fxr) ov in dependent propositions, when the 
verb of the principal proposition is either accom- 
panied by a negation or contains a negative idea 
in itself, destroy each other and are often to be 

translated by that ; e. g. npoq ti fiXenoJv c^vg^epaiveiQ 
a\)TO Kai cnriGreig, fir) ovk e7ri<JTr)fir) r) r) apery), thoil 

disbelievest that virtue is knowledge.— ovk apvovfiai fir) 
ov yevecSai, I do not deny that it has taken place. — irei- 

GOjiai yap ov togovtov ovc^lv, togre fir) ov KaAtog zaveiv, 

there will nothing happen to me so bad, but that I shall 
die nobly. 

In independent propositions, on the contrary, 
fir) ov is used in combination with the conjunctive 
to express negative assertions with less positive- 
ness and strength, and is to be translated by indeed 
not, perhaps not, and explained by the addition of 
an omitted verb, as opa, and the like ; e. g. a\\d 
fir) ovk r) SiSaKTov r) aperr), but virtue may perhaps 

not be to be taught. — r)fuv & fir) ov§lv aXXo GKeirreov r), 

r) oirep vvv $rj eXeyofiev, but perhaps nothing else may be 
to be examined, than what we just now mentioned.— In 
3 



USE OF PARTICLES. 511 

the same manner is ^ ov used also in combination 
with the participle, to strengthen the sense of jut?, 
and to render it more distinct and prominent; 

6. g. Zvqa\yr\TOQ yap av euiv, roiavSe fxr\ ov /caroiKrsi'pwv 

eSpav, I should be unfeeling, were it possible for me not 
to pity, &c. 

8. As compounded with the negation ovk, the 
particle ovkow may also find a place here. This 
particle, used by the Greeks both in questions 
and in direct propositions, admits of different 
translations and is also differently accented, being 
sometimes written ovkow, sometimes ovkow. The 
following is to be remarked as essential concern- 
ing it : 

(a) In interrogative propositions, where the 
particle signifies not therefore? is it not so? not? it 
is always to be accented ovkow, because ovk must 
here be significantly and emphatically heightened ; 
e. g. Plat. Men. §. 3. after Socrates has asked 
Menon, whether he should answer him after the 
manner of Gorgias, and the other replies in the 
affirmative, Socrates continues : ovkow Xeyere cnrop- 

poag tivclq Tuv ovtiov Kara 'E^rredoKXea ; do you not 

therefore assume (since I am to answer like Gor- 
gias) certain effluxions of all things, like Empedocles ? 

— ovkow ytXwQ ri^KJTog ae zySpovc; ytXav ; Well ! is it not 

the sweetest laughter to laugh at enemies ?— ovkow kcli 
otJjiv KoXfiq n ; thou callest sight also something, is it 
not so ? 

(b) In direct propositions ovkow is either to be 
translated (a) therefore not, yet not, or (/3) it stands 
at the beginning of the proposition, as a more em- 



512 SYNTAX. 

phatical expression for the simple ovv, and is to 
be translated by therefore, consequently ; e. g. <™ 
tovto ewoirivac;, ovkow iywys, thou hast done this, there- 
fore not I. — aXX' avrov ifiirag eyto roiovSs juot ovkow 

arifxaaaifx av, but although he stands so towards me, 
yet Iiuouldnot dishonour him. — ovkow, orav Sri/Jirj <y^vw, 
ir&iravaofxm' therefore, when I am unable, I shall desist. 
— As a rule of accentuation, it has been laid down, 
that in passages where the particle signifies there- 
fore not, it is to be written ovkow, but where the 
idea of negation entirely disappears, ovkow. 
Strictly considered however the idea of negation 
does not vanish in ovkow even where it is to be 
translated by therefore, but the particle is there 
also properly an interrogative particle, which 
stands alone without any intimate connection 
with the following words of the proposition not 
constituted in the interrogative form, as e. g. in 
the adduced ovkow, orav k. r. X., is it not so ? when 
I am unable, &c. Hence it is evident that pro- 
perly it should always be accented ovkow ; al- 
though in the adduced case the accentuation 
ovkow may not appear objectionable, as a means 
of facilitating the determination of the sense. 



END OF THE SYNTAX. 



GREEK INDEX. 



PRELIMINARY REMARK. 

The irregular verbs are not admitted into the following catalogue, because 
they already occur in alphabetical order, and can therefore be easily found. Also 
the individual Greek verbs, whose construction is given in the Syntax, are not 
inserted here, but adduced in the English Index according to classes determined 
by the signification. 



A. 



a Doric for tj, 72. 97. 240f. 276. 

a interchanged with e by the Attics 
and Ionians, 72. 

a as termin. of the nominative, quan- 
tity of, 23ff. 

a. as termin. of the 2d and 3d declens. 
short, 25. 

a as termin. of the nominative for rig, 98. 

a in the vocat. of words in ag and t]g , 
97. 25. 

a Doric, as genit. of the 1st declens., 
98. 

a contr. from m in the 3d declens., 132. 

aa as termin. with long a, 28. 

aydywjitt, 238. 

dyav with long a in the termin., 26. 

dyr) and dyrj, quantity of, 32. 

dyvvfii with syllab. augm., 203. 

ayvb)aa<jK£, 234. 

divaog with long a, 32. 

dip. . . as the initial of words with long 
j a, 32. 

dtrog with long a, 32. 

atig as a termin. of adjectives with long 
a, 30. 

dSdvarog with long a, 32. 

al instead of a, use of, 454. 

aidi, 142. 

cttdtog with long a, 32. 

aidog, 142. 

d'idogde, 56. 

di$a\r)g, diicr), di%, with long a, 32. 



atj/w, verbs in, making ava in the 

aor. 1., 218. 
aivoj, verbs in, formation of the perf. 

pass, of, 219f. 
atg Molic for q,v in the infinitive, 264„ 
aig, aioa, as termination of the part. 

for ag, affa, 242f. 
atai in the dat. plur. of the 1st declens., 
■ 98f. 

aKdfiarog with long a, 32. 
aKovirov with long t, 36. 
dicpaTr)g with the genit., 395. 
d'icparo£, quantity of, 31. 
d\a\d with long a, 24. 
dX'KTKOfxai with syllab. augm., 20S„ 
dXiet, 142. 
dXfivpog, 42. 

a/^a as termin. with long a, 30. 
dfirjTrjp, dfiTjrog, with long a, 32. 
dfMpi<T(3r}Teu), augment of, 207. 
av as termin. of the nomin. and accus. 

long and short, 26. 
dv in the genit. plur. of the 1st declens.,. 

98. 
av for act in the perf. 244. 
dv, signification of, 444. 

— position of, in a proposition, 448. 

— with the optative, 445. 

— with the conjunctive, 445f. 

— with the indicative, 446f. 

— ■ with the imperat. infin. and partic. 
447. 

— twice in one proposition, 447£ 
dvd with the dat., 39 L 

1 



S14 



GREEK INDEX. 



dvdaauv with the gen. and dat., 395. 
dvddv(jj with the syllab. augm., 298. 
dvSpcnroSsGcnv, 143. 
di''s\ofjiai with double augm., 207. 
dvr)Kov(TTUv with the gen., 399. 
dvrjp, 137. 

dviapog, quantity of, 31. 
dvoiyw with double augm., 204. 
dvopSou) with double augm., 207. 
avogas termin. of proper names, quan- 
tity of, 30. 
avog as termin. of dissyllabic words, 

with long a, 31. 
dvTiKpv with doubtful v, 38. 
avo), verbs in, with short a, 29. 
a£, genit. aicog, quantity of, 28. 
ao in the genit. of the 1st declens., 98. 
ao in the genit. of the 1st declens., 

quantity of, 27. 
aoq with long a in dissyllabic words, 31. 
dxs&sXv with the gen., 399. 
ap as termin. of the 3d declens. long 

and short, 27. 
dpt}Tt)p with long a, 32. 
dova, dpveg, &c, 144. 
dpKtiv with the dat., 395. 
a£as termin. long, 27. 
ag, genit. arog, with the rejection of r, 

136f. 
ag, gen. tog, 137. 
affa, with long a in the penultimate 

syllable, 28. 
a<n in the perf. with long a, 29. 
aai/xog and aaig with long a, 30. 
aoKov and amcSfxrjv instead of a and 

dfnjv, 234. 
arat and aro instead of xrai and vto, 
w 237. 240. 278. 
aVcpog, drspoi, 77. 
arj;, drriptog, and drripog, with long 

a, 32. 
arijpiog, ariKog, and arjjf, with long 

arova, 49. 
auri£, 62, 



B; 



/8 inserted between two liquids, 64. 
(S\s<papig with doubtful t, 34. 
(3ov\u and fioi>\y, 244. 
/3wv, jSwc, Dor., instead of fiGvv,(3ovg, 
135c 



r. 



•ye, signification and use of, 499. 
ye appended to pers. pronouns, 181. 



A. 



5 inserted between two liquids, 64. 

dayvg with long a, 32. 

5e as appended syllable to nouns and 

pronouns, 56f. 
cs, signification and use of, 504f. 
tie without [x'sv preceding, 505f. 
dk at the beginning of the consequent 

proposition, 505. 
dktcojiai, Ion. instead of eexo/xai, 62. 
SsvSpsa, Skvdpeai, from dsvdpov, 143. 
dt), signification and use of, 501. 
diairdu), augment of, 207. 
diaicoi'kio, augment of, 207. 
diaKOvog, quantity of, 31. 
divrj with long t, 37. 
Slojkstov as 3d pers. dual., 237. 
Spair£TT]g with long a, 32. 



E. 

£ instead of ei with the Ionians, 71. 
e interchanged with a by the Attics and 

Ionians, 72. 
e inserted by the Ionians in verbs pure 

and liquid, 240. 
e rejected in the 2d pers. imperf. pass. 

261. 
ea as termin. of the 1st declens. with 

long a, 23. 
ea as accus. of words in evg with long 

a, 25. 
ea as termin. of the pluperf. 235. 240. 
eag as accus. plur. of words in evg with 

long a, 27. 
tyKpartjg with the gen., 395. 
IBeXw^i, 238. 

ei Att. for y in the 2d pers. pass., 244. 
a instead of e in the Epic and Ionic 

dial., 71. 
ti prefixed instead of the reduplication, 

200f. 
a interchanged with on after verbs de- 
noting an emotion of the mind, 452. 
si with the conjunctive, 454. 
sia as termin. of the 1st declens. with 

short and long a, 23f. 
slg instead of sv, 380. 
tig with the genit., 381. 
sv instead of tivin the infinitive, 242. 
sv instead of ijffav in conjugation, 242. 
sv remains unchanged before a and <,, 

68. 
tVox^sw with double augment, 207. 
toiica with syllab. augm., 203. 
£o\7rawith syllab. augm., 203. 
iopya with syllab. augm., 203, 



GREEK INDEX. 



515 



zoprdZio augmented in the o, 203. 

iTriKai'SdveaSai with the accusative, 
398. 

IpiQog with longt, 36. 

tpivog with long i, 36. 

eg instead of tig in conjug.with the Do- 
rians, 241. 

sgkov and t<SKOj.u}v as termin. of the 
imperf. 233f. 240. 

t<7Tl, 56. 

tridsa Ion. instead of iriSqv, 276. 

tv Jon. for ow, 72. 

evg, genit. Epic and Ionic i)og and eo£, 
136. 

eX£0"^at with the genitive, 396. 

tytceiv, lykTruv, hypyuv, 203. 



H. 



i) Epic and Ionic instead of a, 72.97. 
q as augment instead of e, 201. 
^ytlo-Sai with the gen. and dat. 394f. 
ydea, ydsip, ydr], ydi]<rda } &c. 235. 

244. 
yicaZov, ijKafffxai, Att. with the aug- 
_ ment, 203. 

?]\Sov never without the augment, 209. 
7)v instead of tiv in the infinitive, 242. 
i]g heteroclite as termin. of proper 

names, 141. 
qg as termin. of the 1st declens., in the 

accus. Ion. ea, plur. sag, 142. 
yg and yai as termin. of the dat. plur. 

of the 1st declens., 99. 
VQ instead of eig in the nominat. and 

vocat. plur. of the 3d declens., 136. 
yvSa instead of ng in the conjunctive, 

238. 
y<n and ymv instead of y in the con- 
junctive, 237. 



S&Tspov, SdHpov, 77. 

<$•£ and Stv as appended syllables, 56, 

StpotTra, Oepcnreg, 144. 



I. 



t long in demonstratives and adverbs, 

33. 
* long as termin. of the dative, 32f. 134. 
*a as termin. of the 1st declens. with 

long a, 23. 
«« as termin. of the 1st declens. with 

short a, 24. 

L 1 



ia as termin. of the 1st declens. with 
long and short i, 35f. 

tdojxai with long i, 37. 

'larpog with long i, 37. 

I'S-UC with long i, 37. 

tfcarw with long a, 29. 

tKw/xi, 238, 

'i\aog, quantity of, 37. 

«/\?;, with long i, 37. 

IXvg, with long t, 37. 

'ifispoc, with long i, 37. 

tv, as termin., quantity of, 33. 

iva, ivrj, as termin. of nouns, with 
long i, 36. 

iviov, with the first ilong, 37. 

ivog as termin. of adjectives with fluc- 
tuating quantity, 36. 

iv(o as termin. of verbs with fluctuating 
quantity of the i, 34f. 

ig f gen. Epic and Ion. io£, 134. 

(£as termin. of the nominative long, 33f. 

ig as termin. of the nom. and accus. 
plur. long, 34. 

ir)]g and irig as termin. of the nom. 
with long i, 86. 

iw, verbs in, with long t in the deriva- 
tive tenses, 215. 

i(o as verbal termin., quantity of the t 
in, 35. 

iojv, as termin. of the comparative, with 
doubtful i, 34. 

iiov as termin. of nouns with long and 
short i, 36. 



K. 



k Ionic instead of -k, 62. 

Kdj3a£, with long a, 32. 

icai, simple use of, 502f. 

Kai — Kai, use of, 503f. 

Kai elided, 77. 

icaXog with fluctuating quantity 31. 

Kdjxivog with long t, 36. 

icdpafiog, first a long, 36. 

tzapig with long a, 32. 

with doubtful i, 34. 

Kepapiig with doubtful i, 34. 

KLjh)v Ion. instead of %irwi/, 62. 

Kt^avw, quantity of the a in, 29. 

Kkripovofitiv with the accusative, 396. 

kXivv, with long i, 37. 

Koivtovag, Koivwveg from KOii/wrof, 

143. 
Kopvvr] with doubtful u, 42. 
Kpdg, 6, quantity of, 28. 
Kpag as termin. of adjectives with long 

a, 28. 
KpartTv with the accusative, 395. 
2 



516 



GREEK INDEX. 



k p it f]g with short t, 36. 
Kvfxivov with long i, 36. 
icv<p6g with long v, 44. 



A, 



Xayxa^fiy with the accusative, 396. 
XdSrpa with long a in the final syllable, 

25. 
Xapiro£ with long a, 32. 
Aapof, with long a, 32. 
Xa£, genit. Aaoc, 28. 
Xcupvpov with long v, 43. 
Xatpvaaerov as 3d pers. dual, imperf., 

237. 
XkTrvpov with long v, 43. 
Atai> with long a, 26. 
Atrof with long i, 37. 
Aiip with short i, 34. 
XvTrtj with long v, 44. 



M. 



juev, signification and use of, 504. 

jU£i> — ds, use of 504f. 

/i£v without a following c)£, 504f. 

jj,sq Doric instead of juev in conjug., 
241. 

ft?], signification and use of, 506ff. 

fxi) in interrogations, 507. 

fxf) after conditional and intentional 
particles, 507. 

fir) after relatives and with participles, 
507f. 

fxr) with the infinitive, 508. 

fx r) with the imperat. conjunct, and op- 
tative, 508. 

fxr) in antitheses, 508f. 

fir) ov, double use of, 510f. 

fxrj with the conjunct, and optat., 462. 

fir) with the indicat. of the pi-eterite, 
463. 

fwcpog with long t, 37. 

fiifikofiai with long t, 37. 

fioi elided, 79. 

jxveXog with long v, 44. 

fivicau) with long v, 44. 

fivKr\g as heteroclite, 141. 



N 



v Doric instead of A, 62. 

v instead of <sav in the 3d pers. plur. 

of the conjugation fit, 276. 
vavg according to the different dialects, 

138f, 



vtav'iag, quantity of, 31. 
vliJj, i short in, 34. 

vrt, Doric instead of crt in the 3d pers, 
plural, 24 If. 



oa as termin. of the 1st declens. with 
long a, 23. 

odvpr] with short v, 42. 

oia as termin. of the 1st declens. with 
long a, 23. 

oia as termin. of the 1st declens. with 
short a, 24. 

Oidiirovg as heteroclite, 141. 

ota and o'iy, 244. 

ouv instead of oiv in the dual, 104 ? 
129. 

oto instead of ov in the genit. of the 2d 
declension, 104. 

oig, iEolic instead of ovv in the infini- 
tive, 264. 

otca instead of ovcra in the participle, 
242f. 

oict instead of oig in the Dat. plur. of 
the 2d declension, 104. 

ovupov, 143. 

opaaj with double augment, 204. 

opvig as heteroclite, 141. 

og as a demonstrative, 336. 

og as termin. of nouns inflected both 
according to the 2d and 3rd declen- 
sions, 142. 

og as termin. of the vocat. in the 2d 
declension, 103. 

og according to the 2d declens., in the 
plur. a, 142f. 

ogclv instead of ov in the 3d pers. plur. 
imperf. and aor. 2., 244. 

ogng declined, together with a specifi- 
cation of its variations by dialect, 
I87f. 

ort redundant, followed by oratio recta, 
457. 

ov and ovk, 49. 

ov, signification and use of, 506f. 

ov, with the infinitive, 508. 

oil in antitheses, 509. 

ov fir), 509f. 

ovKovv and ovkovv, 51 If. 

ovpkui with syllab. augm., 203. 

b%og, 6 and to, 142. 



n. 

TTcnzvpog with long v, 43. 
TrapSevoTr'nnig with long i,.36. 



GREEK INDEX. 



517 



TrapGivth) with double augm., 207. 

7rep, signification and use of, 500. 

7ctpav with long a, 26. 

TrAa'wvand 7tXsojv, declension of, I73f. 

7rXoicap,ig with doubtful t, 34. 

7c\vvog with short v, 43. 

iroXig, its various forms of declension 

in Homer, 134. 
irpiv, construction of, 470. 
■xpoQUTraai from Trpogoiirov, 143. 
frvpog with long v, 44. 



P. 



pa, quantity of, 28. 
patpavig with doubtful t, 34. 
pa Ion. instead of pp, 61. 



1 inserted in the perf. and aor. 1, of 
verbs pure, 215. 

<t doubled in the fut. and aor. 1., 236. 

(T rejected in the 2d pers. sing, pass., 
237. 240. 

akXivov with long t, 36. 

cS'a instead of g in the 2d pers. in con- 
jugation, 241. 

(Tidycov with long a, 31. 

vivam with long a, 31. 

<JKav$dXa with long final a, 24. 

(JKorog, 6 and to, 142. 

(JKV(j)og, 6 and to, 142. 

ffjutXj) with long i, 37. 

<roi elided, 79. 

<xcr Ion. instead of rr, 61. 

GvpiyZ with long v , 44. 

&<ppayig with long a, 32. 



T. 



Tctfivvrj with doubtful v, 42. 
raog, Tawg, with short a, 31. 
rapine, 6 and to, 142. 
rapix°£ with l° n g h 36. 
re, use of, 502f. 
te — te, use of, 502f. 
te teal, use of, 503. 
tetsvxztov as 3d pers. dual, 237. 
riapa, quantity of, 31. 
t'lvo) with doubtful i, 35. 
Topvv7j with doubtful v, 42. 
rpa%uc. with long a, 32. 
ruyxavai/ with the accusative, 396. 
TvyxaveLv with the particip. not to be 
translated into English, 489. 



Tvpog with long v, 44. 
rv^w/xt, 238. 



v as termin. in conjugation long, 38. 
va as termin. of the 1 st declens. with 

long a, 23. 
vSov as adverbial termin. with long v 

42. 
via with long and short a, 24. 
mo£ with metaplasm, 143. 
vXr] with long v, 44. 
y\o£ with long v, 43. 
u/xj? with long u, 43. 
yv as termin. of the nominat. and in 

conjugation long, 38. 
vva and vvr\ with long v, 42. 
vvog with long and short v, 42 f. 
ww, quantity of v in, 39f. 
ww, verbs in, formation of the perf. 

pass, of, 219f 
vpa with long and short v, 42. 
vpog with long and short v, 42. 
vpo), quantity off in, 39f. 
vg long, 39. 
vg, genit. vog, contr. by Epic authors, 

135. 
vg, as termin. of adject, of the common 

gender or having the fern, in ka, 154. 
vayivov with long t, 36. 
vcr/xlvi, as Dat. to va\i'ivr\, 143. 
VT7]g, with long v, 42. 
vrog, with long and short v, 42. 
yw, verbs in, with long v in the deri- 
vative tenses, 215. 
voj, quantity of v in, 40f. 



$. 



(pdXapog, quantity of, 31. 

(pSdvu), quantity of a in, 29. 

(pSivo) with doubtful i, 35. 

0i or 0iv as appended syllables for the 

formation of cases, 99. 104. 130. 
(pXvapog, quantity of, 31. 
ippaTpa with long a, 32. 
<pvXr) with long v, 44. 
<pv<rdo) with long v, 44. 



X. 

%a\ivoc, with long i, 36. 
XtXidwv with long i, 36. 
%tAioi, first i long in, 37. 
XoXvii with short i, 34. 



518 



ENGLISH INDEX, 



%pw£, genit. XP 0C >£> without contrac- 
tion, 131. 
X9**>Q, as heteroclite, 14L 

^. 
i|/uX?/ with long v, 44. 



Q. 



w Doric instead of ov, 72. 

w Doric instead of ov in the genit. of 
the 2d declension, 104. 

w instead of wv in the accus. of the At- 
tic declension, 10G. 



(x)a as tennin. with long o, 23. 
wS'eio with syllab. augm., 203. 
lovkojiai with syiiab. augm., 203. 
o)v, genit. ovog, with the rejection at' 

the v, 132f. 
ojg, genit. wro£, with the rejection of 

the r, 137. 
tog as termin. heteroclite, 142. 155. 
ojq for ovg in the accus. plur. of the 2d 

declens., 104. 
wg with the accus. absolute, 495. 
tog as preposition, 381. 
u>g with the accent, 49. 
fogre, construction of, 433f. 
wv Ion. instead of av, 7 If. 185. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Accent as a means of determining the 
quantity, 2 If. 

, nature of the, 45f. 

« , sign of the, 46f. 

, its position in general, 47ff. 

— in words of the 1st declens., 9 Iff. 

— - — in words of the 2d declension, 
10 Off. 



- in words of the 3rd declension, 

109ff. 

in adjectives, 146ff. 

in the verb, 245ff. 

», irregular in contracts of the 2d 
declension, 105. 

, irregular in the 2d Attic de- 
clension, 107. 

change of the, in syncopised 



words in rjp, 126f. 
— — , irregular in the accus. of the 
termination w, 132. 

, irregular in the genit. plur. of 

words in rjSrjg, 132. 

- — in compar. and superl., 153. 

, change of the, 52ff. 

— incontraction, 76. 

— — in elision, 79. 



Accusative absolute, 49 5f. 

~= — absolute with iog, 

fhg av, 495. 



>£7Tf0, 



Accusative absolute instead of the no" 

minative of the subject, 496f. 
— sing, of the 3d declens. in 



v, 122. 

, signification of the, 372. 

, use of the 373ff. 

for assigning the prox. ob- 
ject, 373. 

— , with verbs, which in some 



other languages frequently take the 
object in the dative, 37 3f. 

with intrans. verbs, 374f. 

, double with verbs, 375ff. 

of nearer definition, 378f. 

— — with definitions of time and 



place, 379. 

used elliptically, 379. 

. with prepositions, 379ff. 

ath verbs to hear, to per- 



ceive, to understand, 398f. 

. with the passive, 418. 

with the infinitive, 47 Off. 

- ■ — — with the infin. after \eytrat, 

478. 
Adjectives, terminations of, 154ff. 

— - of one termin., 156f. 

— — — — ■ of two termin., 155f. 

< in og, 158. 

— - — — of three termin., 154f. 

— — - — of three termin. as common. 



154. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



•519 



Adjectives in iog, 155. 

. , irregular, 1 63f. 

Adverbs, formation of, 33 Iff. 

— — — , degrees of comparison of, 335f. 

JEolic dialect, 5. 

Alexandrine dialect, its peculiarities in 
verbal forms, 244. 

Amplificatives, 344. 

Anomalous nouns, 141. 

Anomaly in conjugation, 285fF. 

Aorists in gkov and tTKOfirjv, 233f. 276. 

Aorist 1., its deviating formation with 
Epic authors, 235f. 

Aorist 1. with the termin. xa, 26 8f. 

Aorist 2. mid. in a pass, signification, 
424. 

of trans, verbs in an intrans. sig- 
nification, 427. 

Aorist, significat. and use of the, 431ff. 

interchanged with the perfect, 

432. 

to be translated by the present, 

or by to be tvont, to use, &c, 432. 

in the significat. to be able, 4S3. 

Aorists pass, in a mid. signification, 424. 

Aphaeresis, 79. 

Apostrophe, 58. 

Appended v, 79f. 

■ does not accede to the dor. 

termination vti, 242. 

Apposition, 369f. 

— in pers. and demons, pro- 
nouns, 369f. 

■ - in the genit. with possess. 

pronouns, 370. 

Article, variations of dialect in its de- 
clension, 186. 

■ — , signification and distinction of 

the definite and indefinite, 349. 

with ideas of species, 350. 

with proper names, 350. 

— — , definite, 351. 

with adjectives, 351. 

without a substantive, 352f. 

with pronouns, 353. 

with adverbs, 354. 

with the infinitive, 354. 

before whole propositions, 354. 

■■ — vvith the genit. or with preposi- 
tions, 352. 

as a demonstrative, 349. 

Attic dialect, 6. 

— , its peculiarity in verbal 

forms, 243f. 

, later, 7. 

Attraction in the relative, 360ff. 

• in oloe, 36 If. 

- — — with the infinitive, 479fT. 

withtheinrin.iiomilted,48lf. 



Augment, idea and kinds of the, 198f. 

, syllabic, 199ft: 

•' ■ in verbs beginning 

with a vowel, 203. 

syllab. and tempor. together, 



204. 



temporal, 201 ff. 
cannot be applied, 



202f. 

in compound verbs, 205fF. 

in verbs compounded with t v 

and dug, 207f. 

— — — — before the preposition, 206. 
doubled in compound verbs, 



20; 



■, omission of the, 208f. 



Breathings, 17f. 



C. 



Cases absolute, 493fF. 

, oblique, signification of the, 372. 

— — , relations of, explained, 371. 
Change of consonants, 60fF. 
Characteristic of the verb, 2C9. 
Comparative, formation of the, 167fT. 
— formed by the rejection of 

o, 169. 
— in airtpog, korepog and 

io-Tspog, 170. 

— in iiov, 17 Of. 

in iu)v, declension of the, 



132f. 



in gguv, 171. 

anomalous, 172fF. 

from substantives and pre- 



positions, 174. 

is wanting, 175. 



Comparison, formation of the degrees 

of, 167ff. 
Compound verbs, construction of, 414f. 
Conjugation in general, 194f. 

in w, 194ff. 

- _ in /n, 265ff. 

, irregular and defective, 

285ff. 
Conjunctive, peculiarly formed by Epic 

authors, 237f. 
perf. act. and pass, has no 

independent form, 231. 233. 

perf. pass, in an indepen- 



dent form, 231.259. 

in the conjug. (xl with the 



lengthening of the termination, 277 



520 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Conjunctive of verbs in vpi formed ac- 
cording to the conjugation pi, 275. 

• -- — in simple propositions, 

440f. 

— — with av, 445f. 

■ — after tempor. and caus. 

particles, 45 Of. 

»• after intent, partic, 458fF. 

- — — in hypoth. propositions, 

453. 



463fF. 



in relat. propositions, 

— without av in relat, prop., 

465. 
Contraction of vowels, 73ff. 
1 in the 1st declension, 97. 

■ — — in the 2d declension, 104f. 

in the 2d declens. omitted 

by Epic authors, 105. 
, Epic, in the termin. r)Q, eg 

and oq, in the 3d declension, 131. 

-, variation of, in verbs contr., 



2 6 Off. 



260ff. 



132. 



•- in conjug. in the Epic dial., 
— , double, in words in /c\^£, 



Copula as part of a proposition, 364ff. 
in the same number with the 

subject, 365. 

— is wanting, 366. 

— in the sing, with a neut. plur., 

366. 
■ — in the plur. with a sing, of the 

subject, 367. 
Correlatives, 188f. 



D. 



Dative, signification of the, 372. 

use of the, 384ff. 

for designating the remote ob- 
ject, 384f. 

— ■ for assigning possession, 335. 

for assigning approach and con- 
nection, 386. 

— for assigning the object with 

verbs, 386. 

* with words denoting equality, 

resemblance or suitableness, 387. 

for designating the relation of 



ablatives, 388ff. 

for assigning the means, 388. 

— with xprjfffS-at, 388. 

— - for assigning connection and 



communion, 388. 

' for assigning the motive, 389. 
— — — with verbs of feeling, 389. 



Dative for assigning the way and man- 
ner, 389. 

for assigning the time, 389. 

— with prepositions, 39 Of. 

— with the passive, 417. 

of pers. pronouns instead of 



possessives, 358. 

[xoi, (Toi redundant, 385. 

with the infinitive, 481. 

absolute, 494. 



Declension in general, 88f. 
, irregular and defec, 139ff, 



Defective nouns, 144f. 

Deponents, 423. 

Desideratives, 344. 

Dialects in general, 2. 

— - - of the Greek language, 3ff. 

Dialect, differences of, in regard to the 
change of letters, 6 Iff. 

, differences of, in the 1st de- 
clension, 97ff. 

— — — — — - in the 2d de- 



clension, 104. 



- in the 3rd de- 
clension, 126f. 129ff. 134ff- 
._ — _____ in verbal forms, 



233ff. 



-in the conjuga- 



tion in pi, 276ff. 

Diastole, 57. 

Diminutives, 343. 

Doric dialect, 4f. 

■ ■ , peculiarities of the, in ver- 
bal forms, 240ff. 

Dual unusual in many words, 368. 



E. 

Elision, 78f. 
Enclitics, 54ff. 

retain the accent, 56. 



Epic dialect, 3f. 
poets, 3f. 



F. 



Feminines in oq in the 2d declens., 99f. 

Frequentatives, 344. 

Future 2, formation of the, 223f. 

Attic, 223f. 

1, varied formation of, with 



Epic authors, 235. 



with 



the Dorians, 243. 
— 1. rmd. with Dor. termin. in the 

common language, 243. 
------ mid, with pass, signif., 424. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



521 



Future, simple and compound, use and 

signification of the, 433f. 

3. rarely used, 233. 

• , signif. and use of the, 435. 

■ instead of the common future, 

435. 
instead of the imperative, 469. 



Gender determined by the significa- 
tion, 86f. 

of the names of animals, 87. 

of words in the 1st declens., 90. 

■ of words in the 2d declens., 99f. 

of words in the 3rd declension, 

107ff. 

Genitive, signification of the, 372. 392. 

: of supplement, 392fF. 

- with substantives, 393. 

————— in an act. and pass, signif., 
393. 



'- for assigning possession, 393. 

■ of the whole with mention of 

a part, 393ff. 

with superl., adject, and pro- 
nouns, 393f. 

with verbs containing the 

idea of a superl. or compar., 394f. 
408. 
— ■ with verbs to have or take a 



part. 



395. 



390. 



with verbs to touch, to begin, 

• • " - ■ with verbs otherwise govern- 
ing the accusative, 396. 
with adverbs and verbs de- 
noting approach, 396. 

with verbs to enjoy, to taste, 



to eat, to drink, to have profit, 396f. 

with verbs to remind, to re- 
member, to forget, 397. 

— with verbs to hear, to learn, 

to perceive, to observe, to understand, 
398. 



with adverbs of place and 

time, 399. 

for assigning the time, 399. 

with slvai, 400. 

— ■■ with words expressing abun- 
dance or deficiency, 401. 

— with worthy, unworthy, to be 

worth, to deserve, 401. 

— ■ withexperienced, skilled, 401. 

with verbal adjectives, 401. 

■ with Tvyx&vEiv, \ay%dvtiv, 

Kkr)Qovo}xuv, 395. 



Genitive with TTtioaGSai, 402. 

— — with to charge, to accuse, to 

condemn, 402. 
■■ for assigning the price, 402f. 

■ with to exchange, to barter, 

403. 

■ for assigning separation,403. 

■ for assigning the material, 

404. 

translated in English for, on 

account of, in respect of, 404f. 

— with to smell, to scent, to 

taste, 404. 

- — • for assigning the cause, 404ff„ 

with interjections, 405. 

— with e'xf iv and rjKe.iv accom- 
panied by adverbs, 405f. 

— - with verbs to envy, to admire, 

406. 

— — — - with verbs to care for, to be 
concerned for, to despise, to spare, 406. 

~ — with verbs expressing vio- 
lent desire, 407. 

■ • with the comparative, 407. 

■ ' ■ with 7ro\\a7rXdcriog, 7rs~ 
piTTog, 408. 

with the infinitive, 480. 

as apposition with posses- 

sives, 370. 

— — absolute, 494. 

. w ith wg, 496. 

of pers. pronouns instead of 

possessives, 357. 

Grammar and its parts, 1 . 



H. 



Hellenic dialect, 7. 
Heteroclites, 14 If. 

Hypothetical propositions, 449. 452ff. 
construction 



of, 452fF. 



I. 



Imperative, use of the, 467ff. 

perf. use of the, 468. 

with dv, 447. 

pres. interchanged with the 

conjunct, aorist, 468. 

after olcQ' on, &c. 468f. 



Imperfect, signif. and use of the, 434. 
■ in (Ticov and ocofMjv, 233f. 

276. 
Impersonal expressions given personally 

in Greek, 486f. 
Inchoatives, 345. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Intleclinables, 144. 

Indicative in simple propositions, 440. 

with dv, 446f. 

. after tempor. and causal par- 
ticles, 450. 

. — — in hypoth. propositions, 45 2 if. 

. with av'va. hypoth. prop. 453. 

. — in trans, prop, after on, ejg, 

45 6f. 

— — of the future after intentional 

particles, 461. 

. preterite after intentional 

particles, 46 If. 

,, -in relative propositions, 463fF. 

_ with dv in relat. proposi- 
tions, 465f. 

.after were, 473f. 



Infinitive active, with various termin. in 

Epic authors, 238f. 
— with various termin. in 

Doric authors, 242. 
» of verbs in fxi in Epic authors, 

277f. 

. , use of the, 4G9ff. 

. . with the article, 354. 469f. 

and with pre- 



positions, 470. 

with dv, 447. 

used absolutely to express vio- 



lent feeling, 470. 

— used absolutely in intermediate 

propositions, 474. 

„ , instead of the imperative, 470. 

— after Ttgiv and Trdpog, 471. 

■ , ■«. distinguished from the parti- 
ciple, 472. 

as supplement after incomplete 

verbs, 47 2f. 

— as supplement after adject.473f. 

— for assigning the aim and in- 



tention, 474. 

_ after (ogrs, 475. 

— — — , independent, with the accus., 

476ff. 
,— . with the accusat. in depend. 

prop. 476ff. 
— in depend, prop, with the accus. 

wanting, 478. 
— ■ after incomplete verbs instead 

of the participle, 487f. 
«- — — after on, w£, 458. 
after relatives, 466. 



Intentional particles, 458ff. 

Intransitive verbs with a passive con- 
struction, 427. 

Ionic dialect, 6. 

, — _ — — — , peculiarity of the, in ver- 
bal forms, 239f. 263f. 



Ionic dialect omits contraction, 75. 

Iota subscript, 16. 

— ■ under the infinitive ter- 



min. av, 252. 



L. 



Language according to its idea and de- 

velopement, If. 
Letters, pronunciation of the, lOff. 

■ , division of the, 12ff. 

, change of, 60ff. 



M. 

Masculine adjectives with dual femi- 

nines, 368. 
Middle letter inserted, 64. 

— forms, 423ff. 

, signification of the, 4 1 9ff. 

in the signif. to cause, 422. 



Modes, idea of the, 192f.439f. 

, their use in simple prop., 440ff. 

of the aorist interchanged with 

those of the present, 437. 

Modal vowel shortened in the con- 
junct., 233. 

Mute with a liquid forms a true posi- 
tion, 20. 

admits of redupli- 



cation, 200. 



N. 

Names of nations, 344. 
Negatives, use of, 506ff. 

■ — , accumulation of, 509. 
Neuter plur. with verbs in the singular, 
366. 

of adjectives instead of the 



singular, 351. 
Nominative investigated, 371. 

, double with verbs, 365. 

— with the infinitive, 480. 

absolute, 496. 

Numerals, I76ff. 



O. 



Object, proximate and remote, 370f. 
Optative perf. has no independent form, 
231. 233. 

■ in oi r\v in verbs contr., 251. 

■ perf. pass, in verbs contr., 259. 






ENGLISH IXDEX. 



523 



Optative in verbs in vfii formed accord- j 

ing to the conjug. fit, 275. 

, it3 use in simple prop,, 442f. 

with dv, 445. 

— after temp, and caus. particles, 

4 5 Off. 
with civ after temp, and caus. 

particles, 45 If. 

after on, ojq, 45 6f. 

■ inhypoth. prop., 453f. 

■■ ■ after intent, particles, 459ff. 

• inrelat. prop., 463ff. 

■ — with dv in relat. prop., 465. 



P. 



Particles, use of, 498ff. 

, idea and division of the, 498. 

Participle perf. with the termin. of the 
present, 243. 

, two-fold use of the, 4S3ff. 

as supplement after incom- 
plete verbs, 484ff. 

in intermediate prop., 489ff. 

■ for connecting several mem- 
bers of a prop., 49 Iff. 

— with the article, 492f. 

— — — with dv, 447. 

to be translated by a sub- 
stantive, with a prep, or by an ad- 
verb, 



491. 

— ■ ■ — to be translated by with, 492. 
of the aorist as preterite, 

43 7 f. 
of the fut. to assign the aim 

or intention, 493. 
■ after XavSdvio, Tvy\dvio, 

^iciTeXeco, <pBdvu), x atow > and others, 

489. 
Participles, terminations of the, 165f. 
Parts of speech, developement of the, 8 Iff. 
Passive, use of the, 4 ] 6ff. 
- 1 of verbs which take the object 

in the genit. and dat., 418. 
Patronymics, 344. 
Perfect 1. with o instead of s, 222. 
2., formation of the, 224f. 

- ■ 2. as the proper perf. of Epic 
authors, 234f. 

• 2., use and signif. of the, 426. 
— passive, formation of the, 222. 

225f. 229ff. 

, in a mid. signif., 425. 

, signif. and use of the, 431. 

* instead of the present, 431. 
Plural instead of the dual, 368. 
Pluperfect in sa with Epic authors, 235. 
Pluperfect, signif, and use of the, 435. 



Position, 20. 

Predicate, as part of a prop , 364. 

in the same number, case 

and gender with the subject, 365. 

in the neut. sing, without re- 
gard to the subject, 367. 

determined by the signif., 

not by the form of the subject, 367f. 

Prepositions with one case, 3S0f. 390. 
409f. 

with two cases, 38 If. 41 Of. 

■ with three cases, 3S2ff. 

390f.411ff. 

Present, signif. and use of the, 430. 

instead of the aor. 438. 

Proclitics, 49. 

Pronouns, their form and inflex., 181ff. 

— personal, according to the 

different dialects, 184f. 

" demonstrate declined, 185f. 

■ — , lengthened, 190. 

, peculiarities in the use of, 

355ff. 

personal in Homer instead of 

avTQQ, 356. 

— personal, expressly accom- 
panying the verb, 358f. 

possessive, partly omitted, 

partly interchanged with the pers. 
and reflexive, 357. 

definite, use of the, 355f. 

■ reflexive, interchanged with 

the definite, 356f. 

reflexive of the 3d pers. in- 
stead of the 1st and 2d pers. 358. 

relative, most simple con- 
struction of the, 359. 

— — relative and adverbs with 

ecTTiv, 362. 

relative, adapted in external 

form not to the preceding but to the 
subjoined substantive, 362. 

relative regulated in external 

form by the predicate, 362. 

— — relative instead of the demon- 

strat. with a particle, 363. 

Pronunciation, Erasmian and Reuch- 
linian, 11. 

Propositions, dependent, aceording to 
their different forms, 444. 



R. 



Reduplication of the consonants cr, A, 
\x, v, 69f. 

in the perfect, 199. 

wanting, 200f. 
Attic, 204 f. 



524 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



2. and fu- 



Reduplication in the aor. 
ture, 236f. 201.204f. 

— can never 

208. 

■ in verbs in yu, 266. 

Relative not repeated, when several re- 
lative propositions follow one another, 
466. 

— with the infinitive, 466. 

Root of the verb and its discovery, 209fF. 



S. 



Subject, as part of a proposition, 364. 

in the nominative, 364. 

wanting, 365f. 

Superlative, formation of the, 167ff. 

■ in KTrog, 17 Of. 

■ — ; in airarog, kcrrarog, icra- 



U. 



be omitted, Unaccented words, 49. 



rog, 



170. 

— formed by the rejection of o, 



» anomalous, I72ff. 

■ — - from subst. andpreposit.,174. 

wanting, 175. 

Supplemental propositions, 449ff. 
Syllables, division of, 58f. 
Synizesis, 77f. 
Syncopised substant. in rjp, 126f. 



Tenses, division of the, 193. 

, peculiar signif. of the, 428fF. 

, use of the, 430ff. 

, formation of the, 22 Iff. 

, affinity of the, 220f. 

Tenuis, in Ionic unchanged before the 

rough breathing, 65. 
Transitive propositions for assigning the 

object and intention, 455ff. 
Transposition of consonants, 68f. 



V. 



Verbs, kinds of, 19 If. 

barytone, 214ff. 

• ~ contract, 247ff. 

liquid, 217ff. 

mute, 216f. 

--pure, 215f. 

■- in (o 9 classes of, 213ff. 

in dco, retaining the a in the de- 
rivative tenses, 258. 

— — in da) take t] instead of a in 
contraction, 260. 

in odo) contr. in Epic and Ionic, 

263f. 

— in leu, retaining the £ in the deri- 
vative tenses, 258. 

■ in so), which take ev in the fut., 

259. 

— in 6(0, retaining the short vowel 

in the fut., 259. 

in jxi, 265. 

with a trans, and intrans. signifi- 
cation, 425. 

Verbal adjectives, formation of, 284f. 

■, construction of, 415. 

— — — terminations and their annexa- 
tion to the root, 196ff. 

—forms, constituent parts of, 195. 

—, use of, 232f. 

Verb, its idea and properties, 19 Iff. 

Vocative singular, its formation in the 
3d declension, 122. 



W. 



Words, Greek, formation of, 388ff. 



THE END. 



Printed by R* Gilbert, St John's-square, London. 



r 






